THE ROLE OF PERSONALITIES IN THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
In the course of Italian unification, there are a number of
personalities who played a distinguished role.
These personalities were patriotic Italian nationalists like
Mazzini, Cavour, Victor Emmanuel 11 etc and non Italian statesmen like Napoleon
I, Napoleon III, Bismarck and Pope Pius IX, The roles played by these
personalities were both positive and negative in the process of Italian
unification.
1. GUISEPPE MAZZINI (1805-1872)
Mazzinni was born on 22th June 1805 to a Doctor and
a Professor of anatomy in Genoa. Mizzen’s father was a great scholar who was
well versed with the French revolution of 1789. His father lectured to him the
story of the French revolution to which he (Mazzinni) paid keen interest. This made
him knowledgeable about the French revolutionary ideas, changes and the
campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte as well. His father also told him about the
disunity and disorganization of the various Italian states and the glories of
the ancient Rom- Empire. These .stories influenced Mazzini’s sentiments and he
became a known republican right from childhood up to his death. He preached for
a free, united and republican (democratic) Italy. This strengthened the spirit
of liberty and nationalism amongst the Italians for the unification. This is
why he is code-named. The prophet of the Italian Unification.
Mazzinni became a full time revolutionary right from childhood.
In 1815, the Vienna Peacemakers added his hometown of Genoa to the Kingdom of
Piedmont. This provoked a wave of protest from the Genoa which himself
participated. Thus, Mazzinni became a radical revolutionary at an early age of
10 years old.
In around 1820, Mazzinni joined the Carbonari secret movement
to fight for Italian freedom and independence from Austria. He was very active
in the Cabonari's uprisings at Naples, Sicily and Piedmont in the 1820's and
1830. Although the Carbonari failed, it nevertheless laid a foundation for
Italian unification that Cavour and Victor Emmanuel utilized in the 1850's and
1860's.
The numerous weaknesses and failures of the Carbonari inspired
Mazzinni to form the Young Italy Movement in 1831. Its motto was, "God and
the people" This movement attracted a big number of the youth whom he used
to appeal to the other sections of Italians like the peasants, businessmen.
Civil servants, army and other intellectuals. The Young Italy Movement became
broad based with over 600,000 members by 1833.
In 1833, Mazzini attempted an unsuccessful revolt against
Charles Albert of Piedmont, in which he was sentenced to death. However, he
escaped to Switzerland through France and thereafter to England. He opened a
pro-unification school for the children of Italian exiles at the Tottenham Road
Court district (in London). In France, he had established several branches of
the Young Italy Movement in different states.
He wrote several pamphlets, letters and books through these
branches that circulated to the Italians. This kept the fire of unification
burning and politicized the Italians about the unification. It reduced the past
ignorance about the unification and made it easier to mobilize the Italians for
unification.
In 1848, Mazzini together with Garibaldi overthrew the
conservative Pope Pius IX who had objected his ambition of establishing a
democratic and constitutional Parliament. They successfully instituted the
Roman republic under Daniel Manin in Rome. They also introduced a number of
reforms in the Papal States. Unfortunately, France under Napoleon III
intervened by crashing (destroying) the republic and restored the Pope to
power. The French troops remained in Rome and protected the Pope up to 1870
when they were withdrawn. This is why Mazzini hated any dealing with France in
the struggle to unify Italy. That was also why he protested the 1859 alliance
which even led to the annexation of Nice and Savoy (his own home town) to
France.
However, Mazzini is criticized for his negative attitude
against foreign assistance. His view was that Italians needed self-sacrificing
patriots not foreign assistance that was bound to be strings attached. He
therefore decampaigned foreign assistance and that is partly why no foreign
power bothered to assist the Italians by 1850. This delayed the struggle
because prior to 1850, Italians were militarily, politically and economically
inferior to Austria and thus needed foreign support if they were to succeed.
Mazzini was also a radical republican who failed to co-operate
with Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II.
He protested and hated a united republic under King Victor
Emmanuel II until his death in 1872. He regretted this when he wrote; I shall
have no more joy in Italy, that country with its contempt for all ideas, has
killed the soul within me. Mazzini’s attitude and policy against Italian Kings
has also been criticized amongst historians. He used a propaganda campaign
against Italians Kings (since 1830) and traitors in the unification struggle.
He even used the Young Italy Movement to stage revolts against Italian rulers
after branding them agents of Austria. Although a number of these rulers were
real traitors and supporters of Austria, it's argued that Mazzini did not do
enough dialogue with them i.e. to convince them to fight Austria. All the same
his negative attitude and policy against Italian
Kings made them to corporate with Austria against the
unification by 1850.
Mazzini’s other weakness was that his Young Italy Movement was
more of a political pressure group with a limited military skill. This is why
it was impossible for them to organize a well co-ordinate, led, trained and
armed uprising against Austria.
Nevertheless, inspite of his weaknesses and failures, Mazzini
was the first well-known Italian nationalist in the unification struggle. He
politicized the Italians and inspired them with the spirit of dedication,
patriotism and self-sacrifice for the unification. This is what future
nationalists like Cavour utilized to unify Italy by 1870.
2. GARIBALDI 1807-1882:
Garibaldi was born in Nice in 1807 to a peasant family. His
peasantry family background made him to develop a negative attitude to
Kingship. This is what made him to become a radical republican like Mazzini.
Although Garibaldi was not educated, he nevertheless had strong nationalistic
sentiments (feelings) for a united Italy. He was inspired by Italian patriots
and exiles to fight for Italian freedom. He believed in Italy just like
Christians who believe in God. Garibaldi excelled as the most daring military
commander in the battles through which Italian states were liberated from
Austria. In other words, he was a military hero and that is why he is referred
to as a sword of Italian unification.
Garibaldi's parents wanted him to be a priest but he was more
interested in tourism and adventurism right from his childhood. At the age of
15 years, he left his parents and took up a career on the sea. He became an
efficient sailor and businessman in the Roman Sea.
Garibaldi's revolutionary spirit made him join the Young Italy
Movement of Mazzini. He became a devoted and active member of the movement. He
was very active in the 1830-1831 uprisings that failed.
He later joined the Piedmont's navy with a hidden agenda of
organizing a mutiny (coup) in 1834 as Mazzini was to mobilize the civilians.
However, this plan aborted and Garibaldi was sentenced to death by Charle
Albert I of Piedmont.
Fortunately, Garibaldi fled to exile in France, and later to
South America where he spent 12 years. While in exile Garibaldi fought for
Uruguay against Brazil and Argentina's dictatorships. It is from here that he
learnt guerrilla war tactics and skills that he used in the Italian unification
from 1848. He adopted the red-shirt uniforms from the Argentineans. The
Argentineans used the red-shirt uniforms to reduce the notability of
bloodstains from those who were slaughtered. When he returned from exile, he
formed an army of about 1000 red-shirts that he used to liberate the islands of
Sicily and Naples from Austria.
Garibaldi's zeal for Italy's unity and liberation was displayed
in the 1848 revolution in Italy. He returned from exile in 1848 and offered his
military services to Charles Albert of Piedmont - Sardinia. However, he
suffered defeat at the battle of Custpzza. Even if this attempt was a failure,
it left a number of lessons which future nationalists like Cavour used to programme
for a successful unification by 1870.
In 1848 still, Garibaldi and Mazzini overthrew the Pope and set
up a short-lived Roman republic led by Daniel Manin. However, they were thrown
out of Rome by French troops led by General Oudinot. The French troops
demolished the Republic and reinstated the Pope in the Papal States.
After the failures of 1848, Garibaldi became a wanted man by
the armies of France, Austria and the Pope. Worst of all, he had even lost his
dear wife, Anita in the course of fighting the French armies.
Garibaldi again fled to South America and later New York. He
accumulated enough money and came back to live a peaceful life for sometime on
the island he had bought near Italy. Cavour met him and convinced him to join
the unification movement under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II of
Piedmont in 1856. Garibaldi accepted and dropped his republican ideology and
this singled him out as a true Italian patriot unlike Mazzinni who had
discarded any dealings with Kings.
In 1859, Garibaldi liberated Lombardy from Austria. This became
the first successful military campaign in the practical unification of Italy.
He commanded the Piedmont's troops and together with the French Troops defeated
Austrian forces at the battles of Magenta and Salfarino. After the war, Austria
was forced to quit Lombardy which was added to Piedmont. This success weakened
Austria's control in Italy and stimulated Nationalistic uprisings in the
Central Italian states to join Piedmont in 1860. They eventually did so through
the 1860 referendum.
However, Garibaldi was very disappointed when Napoleon III of
France signed the truce of Villa Franca in 1859 with Austria and withdrew from
the war. This left Venetia out and yet Napoleon III had earlier agreed (in the
pact of Plombieres 1858) to liberate both Lombardy and Venetia from Austria's
domination.
Garibaldi was also greatly disappointed by Cavour's pact of
Plombieres with Napoleon. This was because Cavour agreed to give Napoleon III
Nice and Savoy to compensate for his military assistance against Austria in
1859. This was Garibaldi's worst experience for Nice was his own birth place.
He lamented that; they have made me a foreigner in a land of my birth.
In 1861, Garibaldi successfully liberated the two islands of
Sicily and Naples with a thousand red-shirt soldiers. He sailed from Caprere
(in Piedmont) and landed at Port Marsala from where he advanced and liberated
Sicily. He later crossed the Straits of Massina and conquered Naples. He then
surrendered both islands to Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont. After this, the
Kingdom*of Italy was officially declared in 1861 and this signifies Garibaldi's
contributions to the course of Italian unification.
NB: After his success in Sicily and Naples, Garibaldi returned
to Caprere with a few seeds of com after rejecting all compensations including
becoming the Duke of Sicily. While at Caprere, he lived a simple lifestyle as
an ordinary farmer, fisherman and a candle maker at last!!!
Garibaldi made three unsuccessful attempts in 1862, 1865, and
1867 to liberate Rome and annex it to the Kingdom of Italy, His attempt was
foiled by Cavour who feared intervention from Catholic states and a stiff
resistance from the French and Papal troops. Nevertheless, his attacks reminded
the Italians that Rome must be part of a united Italy, which was finally done
in 1870.
On the other hand, Cavour's untimely death in 1861 greatly
affected Garibaldi's role in the unification of Italy. His successors failed to
appreciate his role in the unification process. They never regarded him
faithful in a united Italy under Victor Emmanuel II. On the other hand, his
earlier solidarity with Cavour and legitimists reaped him hatred from fanatical
liberals and republicans. Mazzini, amongst others remarked that he had a heart
of gold and brain of an ox - implying that he was faithful to Cavour's ideals
of liberal and constitutional legitimacy in Italian unification while betraying
or abandoning his original republicanism.
In the 1866 Austro- Prussian war. Garibaldi led the Italian
soldiers to assist Prussia against Austria, This was in accordance to an
alliance between Italy and Prussia in which Italy was to be given Venetia. This
alliance led to the defeat of Austria. After the war, Italy was given Venetia
in the treaty of Prague in 1867and the greatest tribute goes to Garibaldi.
Garibaldi died in 1882 but he played a memorable role as a
veteran soldier during the unification of Italy. He was one of the greatest
architects of Italian unification. He greatly complemented the roles of
Mazzini, Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II in the unification of Italy. He has
remained in the eyes of history to the extent that stories of his selfless
service and patriotism are read profoundly in Italy.
3. COUNT CAMILLO DE CAVOUR (1810-1861):
Cavour was a Piedmontese born in Turin (capital of Piedmont) in
1810 to a noble family. Although Cavour was an aristocrat by birth, he was not
conservative. Instead he was liberal minded and an admirer of British
liberalism -plus its constitutional system of governance. He joined the army
but resigned in 1830 after quarrelling with his conservative Piedmontese senior
officers due to his support for the 1830 French revolution against the
Bourbons. After this, he settled down for fanning and became an opinion leader
amongst the farmers.
Consequently, he was elected to Piedmont's first Parliament in
1848. In 1850, he was appointed the minister for agriculture, industry and
commerce. He also held the post of a finance minster and in 1852; he became the
prime minister of Piedmont. It was in these sensitive and successive posts that
Cavour laid a firm and sound foundation for Piedmont's social, political,
economic and military developments that became the backbone for the unification
of Italy. This is why Cavour is regarded as the Soul of Italian unification. In
other words, Cavour was the greatest architect (maker) of Italian unification
due to the various roles he played in the course of Italian unification.
1. In 1847, Cavour founded a revolutionary newspaper called ill
risorgimento (or Italian resurrection). It advocated for a free, constitutional
and united Italy. The paper helped to politicize the Italians and strengthened
the spirit of unification at a time when Mazzini’s Young Italy Movement had
collapsed.
This is what amongst others made Charles Albert to take up arms
against Austria in 1848. The ill Risorgimento also sensitized the European
powers to change their hitherto negative attitude and support the Italian
unification after 1850.
2. Cavour made favourable reforms in Piedmont and that is why
Piedmont was able to champion the course of Italian unification. He advised
King Victor Emmanuel II to abandon his fathers' anti unification policies and
take the Italian unification as a priority. He worked closely with the King to
implement the 1848 Constitution which gave the Italians more political freedom.
This made the Italians to enjoy some degree of freedom and it made them
enthusiastic for total independence from Austria.
This is what enabled Piedmont to rally behind her all other
Italian states in the unification.
3. Cavour successfully reduced the influence of the church and
Pope in Italian affairs. In 1849, the Pope betrayed the Italians and remained a
serious obstacle to the unification of Italy. Cavour together with Victor
Emmanuel II enacted laws that paralyzed the influence of the Catholic Church in
state affairs. In
1850, he passed the Siccardi laws which scrapped the church
privileges, asserted freedom of worship, state control of education, land,
finance and marriage. These reforms checked the negative role of the Pope and
speeded the success of the unification. Such reforms also earned Cavour support
from the liberals and republicans, which facilitated the unification of Italy
after 1850.
4. Cavour's educational reforms also aided the course of
Italian unification. He abolished church influence in education and liberalized
education. He built schools and Institutions of higher learning.
These reduced illiteracy and past ignorance that used, hinder
the Italian unification. It should be
emphasized that the products of such schools and institutions
became radical critics of Austrian influence in Italian affairs and helped in
championing the process of Italian unification.
5. Cavour championed and sponsored the formation of the Italian
national society (1857) under the leadership of Doctor Manin, Lafarina and
Pallvicino. The society provided a forum for sensitization and mobilization of
Italians against Austria. It also helped to politicize the Italians and reduce
ignorance that had made it difficult to mobilize the Italians for unification.
6. Cavour advocated for unity and harmony amongst the
conflicting political groups like the monarchists, republicans and federalists
who used to hinder the unification before 1850. He also mobilized all
able-bodied Italians to rally behind Piedmont to fight Austria. This made the
Italians to raise a big force that succeeded in eliminating Austria out of
Italian political affairs.
7. Aware that the unification of Italy had failed due to
military weakness, Cavour decided to strengthen the Piedmontese army that was
used to fight Austria. He expanded, re-organized, re-trained and reequipped the
Piedmontese army with modem arms and skills. It is this army that was used to
liberate Lombardy in 1859, Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870.
8. Cavour re-organized the Piedmontese economy that was used to
finance the unification. He developed agriculture, industry and eliminated
corruption, which increased Piedmont's revenue. It is this increased revenue
that helped in modernizing the army to fight Austria. Besides, Cavour
constructed roads and railways that easened the process of mobilizing the
Italians for unification. It also helped in transporting foreign troops against
Austria. For instance, the Monscenis railway Tunnel that linked Piedmont to
France is what was used to transport 20.000 French troops for the liberation of
Lombardy in 1859. Had it not been due to the tunnel, it would have been
difficult if not impossible for the French troops to pass through the Alps and
the Italians would not have succeeded against Austria at the battles of Magenta
and Salfarino.
9. Externally, Cavour as a Minister for Finance borrowed loans
especially from Britain. He also signed free commercial treaties with Britain.
France and Belgium. Apart from bringing prosperity, these commercial treaties
paved way for a possible alliance with France and Britain when the unification
of Italy gained momentum. It also isolated Austria and that is why, Britain and
France who were Austria's allies in 1815 turned against her and supported the
unification.
10. Unlike Mazzini and Garibaid-. Cavour realized the need for
foreign assistance as a crucial fact in Italian unification. He tactfully sent
the Piedmontese troops to assist the allied powers in the Crimean War (against
Russia) in order to isolate Austria and get a platform to advocate for Italian
unification. The Crimean war gave the Italians mastery experience that was
crucial in the unification war against Austria.
It also gave Cavour a seat in the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty,
which he used to convince France and Britain to support the Italian unification
' his left Austria isolated since she did not participate in the war and was
thus a great diplomatic victory for Piedmont (against Austria).
n. In 1858, Cavour signed the pact of Plombieres with Napoleon
III in which Napoleon III agreed to help the Italians to liberate Lonhurdy and
Venetia from Austria. Consequently in 1859.Napoleon III sent 20.000 French
troops that assisted the Piedmontese army and defeated Austria at Magenta and
Salfarino leading to the liberalization Lombardy. However. Napoleon III
unexpectedly signed the truce of Villa-Franca with Austria and withdrew from
the war before liberating Venetia. This left Cavour frustrated and made him to
resign his Premiership. It remained an ulcer in his heart and a snag in the
unification of Italy.
12. Cavour provided a justifiable cause for the French
Intervention in the 1859 war against Austria.
Napoleon III had promised to assist the Italians on condition
that Austria was the aggressor. This left Cavour with the task of provoking
Austria to declare war. He achieved this when Austrian authorities ordered
conscription in Lombardy and Venetia which forced the Venetians and Lombards to
take refuge in Piedmont. Cavour mobilized the Piedmontese troops and deployed
them on the border with Lombardy. This forced Austria to declare war on
Piedmont and provided a justification for French intervention.
It should be noted that Napoleon III had changed his mind and
was contemplating a peaceful settlement with British officials. Had this been
the case, Austria was not bound to relinquish control over Lombardy and
Venetia. Thus, credit goes to Cavour’s' political shrewdness that made Austria to
declare war and appeared the aggressor.
13. Apart from the acquisition of Lombardy, the 1859 war also
helped the unification of Italy in another way. This was because it weakened
Austria's control of Italy and stimulated Italian nationalism throughout the
Peninsular. It convinced the Italians that Piedmont had the capacity to
challenge Austria and spearhead the unification process. This provoked popular
uprisings in the Central Italian states of Modena, Parma, Tuscany and Romagna
in 1859 (who later joined Piedmont through a referendum in 1860). Although the
credit for this goes to patriotism of Italians in those states, it should be
realized that it was Cavour’s effort that gave them the opportunity to do so.
This is because he created a favourable international atmosphere that prevented
either France or Austria from intervening against the unification of those
states with Piedmont.
14. Cavour's diplomatic maneuvers and tricks assisted Garibaldi
in the liberation of Sicily and Naples.
He realized that Garibaldi's careless attacks were bound to
attract the intervention of Austria, France and even Britain. Thus, he gave
Garibaldi a diplomatic cover by officially ordering for his arrest while at the
same lime clandestinely (secretly) assisted him with arms and other logistics
to invade the two islands with his a thousand red-shirt army. This gave a false
impression that Cavour was checking Garibaldi's moves yet he was instead aiding
his conquest of the islands.
15. Cavour's role was very instrumental in the annexation of
the Papal States to Piedmont. After
Garibaldi's success in Sicily and Naples, he had an ambition to
invade Rome. This was bound to be catastrophic as it was likely to attract the
intervention of catholic states (especially France and Austria) against the
Italians. To avoid this, Cavour frustrated Garibaldi's invasion of Rome by
occupying the Papal States and made them bulwarks against Garibaldi's
provocation. Eventually, the Papal States joined Piedmont through a referendum
in the same year i.e. 1860,
16. Cavour's efforts led to the declaration of a united Italy
in 1861 at Turin (without Venetia and Rome).
This composed of the liberated states of Lombardy, Naples,
Sicily, Papal States and Piedmont. This is why he is regarded as the greatest
statesman and architect of Italian unification.
17. Although Cavour ranks highest in the history of Italian
unification, his over reliance on foreign assistance costed him a lot of
popularity from some sections of Italians. This is because it led to the loss
of Savoy and Nice that were given to Napoleon III as a reward for the French
military assistance of 1859. This was criticized by Mazzini and Garibaldi
because those two towns were their hometowns.
18. Cavour was also accused for his initial biasness in liberating
the southern Italian states to form part of a united Italy. He had regarded the
southern states as poorer states that would jeopardize the prosperity of the
northern states. It was only when Garibaldi pushed so hard for the liberation
of those states that Cavour changed his attitude and supported the struggle.
However, inspite of such criticism, one should keep in mind that Cavour played
the greatest role in the practical unification of Italy than any of his
contemporaries.
4. VICTOR EMMANUEL U OF PIEDMONT:
Victor Emmanuel II was the son of Charles Albert who fled to
exile due to the 1848 revolutions in Italy.
He was born in 1820 to King Charles Albert who was exiled after
being defeated by the Austrian troops.
He inherited the throne following the abdication of his father
and accepted to lead the struggle for the unification of Italy. Consequently,
he was given the title of the "honest King" because of championing
the unification struggle. It should be noted that Victor Emmanuel's acceptance
to lead the struggle, settled the problem of leadership and provided unity for
Italian nationalists who had been divided before his rise to power.
Unlike his father, who was a conservative Austrian stooge,
Victor Emmanuel II was bellicose (war like), liberal minded, patriotic and
anti-Austrian. When he rose to power in 1848, Austria was ready to make peace
with him on condition that he nullified the liberal constitution of 1848, which
his father had given to the Piedmontese. Austria also assured him of full
support in case of war with any of his neighbours.
However, Victor Emmanuel II refused to accept all such terms
and conditions. The constitution did not only guarantee the rights and
liberties of Italians but became a significant document upon which Italy was
unified. It was adopted as a working document (constitution) for a united Italy
in 1870.
Victor Emmanuel II granted a general amnesty to Italian exiles.
Before 1848, a number of Italian patriots had fled to exile because of
Metternich's oppressive and exploitative system. This also includes pro
unification activists who were forced to exile by Metternich. However, when
Victor Emmanuel II rose to power, he gave them unconditional amnesty to return
home and join the struggle for unification. This boosted the Italian drive to
unification by 1870.
Although Cavour played the most important role in the
unification of Italy, it should be noted that it was Victor Emmanuel II who
promoted him up to post of Prime Minister in 1852. It is this position that
gave Cavour the flat form to create internal reforms and embark on foreign
policies that led to the unification of Italy. Above all, it was Victor
Emmanuel II who supported Cavour's socio-economic and political reforms that
were intended to unify Italy. It was even him who supported Garibaldi's
military adventures in 1859. Otherwise, if Victor Emmanuel had declined or
refused to support Cavour and Garibaldi, their efforts would have ended
nowhere.
Besides, Victor Emanuel II granted liberal and constitutional
reforms in Piedmont that contributed to the unification of Italy. Apart from
supporting Cavour's pro-unification reforms, Victor Emmanuel If embarked on
other similar pro-unification reforms as part of his own initiative. For
instance, he granted freedom of association, press and educational reforms.
Other than creating more hope in him and Piedmont as a fulcrum/center of
Italian unification, these reforms transformed Italy into a constitutional and
liberal nation by 1870.
The conquest and annexation of the Papal States in 1860 was the
effort of Victor Emmanuel II. It was his troops that over ran the Papal States
at Castelfidardo, which were later amalgamated with Piedmont as part of a
united Italy. He also encouraged the central states of Parma, Modena, Tuscany
and Romagna to join Piedmont Sardinia in 1860.This is partly why these states
voted for a union with Piedmont in the referendum of 1860.
Important still, it was Victor Emmanuel II who forced Cavour to
resume his post of Premiership after his resignation following Napoleon Ill's
disappointment in 1860. Most important is that, it was Victor Emmanuel II who
steered the unification of Italy after the death of Cavour in 1861. He did this
by accepting to lead the Kingdom of Northern Italy from 1861 when it was
declared by Cavour. It was even him who entered an alliance with Bismarck,
which led to the defeat of Austria at Sadowa in 1866. This earned Italy Venetia
and completed the unification of the northern Italian states.
Victor Emmanuel restrained Cavour from fighting Austria after
the withdrawal of France in 1860. In the 1859 pact of Plombieres, Napoleon III
of France had pledged to assist Italians to fight Austria for the liberation of
Lombardy and Venetia. However, after the liberation of Lombardy, Napoleon III
signed the truce of Villafranca with Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria in which
he stopped the war against Austria; Cavour insisted that Piedmont should
continue to fight alone for the liberation of Venetia. However, this was bound
to be disastrous and could have led to the loss of Lombardy that had already
been liberated.
Thus, Victor Emmanuel should be credited for being a shrewd
diplomat with a powerful foresight.
Victor Emmanuel II's foreign policy gave pediment a diplomatic
advantage over Austria, which boosted the Italian unification struggle. In
1854, Victor Emmanuel II together with Cavour sent Piedmontese troops to help
allied powers against Russia in the Crimean war. He undertook this venture to
show solidarity and get allies to fight Austria since she had remained neutral
in the war. This is part of the
reason why France and Britain supported the unification of
Italy after the war. Besides, Victor
Emmanuel sacrificed his family interest for the sake of Italian
unification when he consented to give his 16 year old daughter Clotilde to
marry Napoleon Ill's matured cousin, Prince Victor Jerome Napoleon.
This cemented diplomatic ties between Piedmont and France that
helped to isolate Austria and facilitate the process of Italian unification.
Finally, the role of Victor Emmanuel II led to the occupation
of Rome in 1870, which completed the unification of Italy. He took advantage of
the withdrawal of the French troops to attack and occupy
Rome on 20th September 1870. He even organized a
referendum on 2th June 1871 through which the people of Rome voted
to be part of a united Italy. After this, he transferred his family and
Parliament from Turin (in Piedmont) to Rome and this is how Rome became the
capital of Italy.
NB: However. although the occupation and annexation of Rome is
said to have completed the unification of Italy, it should be noted that this
was at the expense of some Italian states like Tyroli, Trieste, Trientino,
Fume, Savoy and Nice that were not liberated from foreign control. These states
were finally superimposed (included) in the united state of Italy in 1919.
5. POPE PIUS IX
The role of Pope Pius ix inspired the Italian unification
movement since the Pope doubled as a spiritual and political leader. In 1846, a
liberal pope Pius ix was elected to replace Pope Gregory xviii. Pope Gregory
and other previous Popes were conservative, anti nationalism with strong
attachment to Austria as a great catholic state. However, Pope Pius ix was
kind- hearted, liberal minded and sympathetic to Italian unification struggle.
He granted a general amnesty to all political prisoners who were imprisoned
during the reign of his predecessors. He also embarked on reforms in
administration, law, education and declared press freedom in 1847 i.e. in the
Papal States. These reforms were also adopted in other states like Piedmont,
Lombardy, Parma etc. It should be emphasized that Pope Pius ix's liberal
attitude made his followers under the leadership of Father, Abbey Gioberty to
advocate for a united Italy under his leadership. This popularized the Italian
unification movement most especially amongst the Catholics and contributed to
the outbreak of the 1848 revolutionary movements against Austria in the Italian
states.
However, Pope Pius ix betrayed Italians when the revolution broke
out in 1848. The religious feelings in him over powered his revolutionary
feelings and made him to denounce war against Austria, a catholic state.
Consequently, he withdrew and sought for protection from Napoleon HI of France.
Napoleon III sent French forces that protected him in Rome up to when he was
forced to withdraw due to pressure from the Franco- Prussian war. Nevertheless,
Pope Pius ix's reforms were firmly rooted through out
Italy and could not simply be undone by his change of mind.
6. WRITERS, PHILOSOPHERS AND OTHER INTELLECTUALS
The role of writers, Philosophers and other intellectuals also
added momentum to Italian unification movement. Abbey Gioberty, Mazzimo
De-Azeglio, Giacomo Leoparch, and Allessandro etc condemned Metternich's and
Austrian domination and oppression of Italians. They wrote poems, novels and
books that were critical of Metternich and Austria. For instance, Giacomo
Leoparch wrote a book "My prisons" in which he exposed how Austrian
authorities tortured Italians in prisons and Allessandro wrote
"The betrothed" in which he described how Austria had
degraded Italians in Europe, through oppression and exploitation. All these
writings inspired Italians with revolutionary emotions that made it easy to
mobilize them for unification by 1870.
7. THE ROLE OFFELICE ORSINI, AS AMARTYR AND PATRIOT
The role of Orsini, an Italian exile (in France), a patriot and
a martyr was also influential in the unification of Italy. He is the one who
pressurized and forced Napoleon IH to assist Italy against Austria in 1859. It
should be noted that Napoleon III wanted Italian independence from Austria and
not a united Italy since he feared a powerful state across his border. Such
attitude made him reluctant to assist the Italians even after signing the 1858
Pact of Plombieres with Cavour. This made Orsini to plot an assassination
against him and his wife Eugene on January 1858. However, Napoleon survived the
assassination and Orsini was guillotined. When he was being guillotined
(hanged), Orsini's last words were, "Vive Italie" (Long Live Italy).
This moved Napoleon III with passion that he changed his attitude and sent
French troops to assist the Italians in 1859. This is because the plot had made
him to realize that as long as Austria remained dominant in Italian affairs,
there would be no peace and security for him, his wife, France and the whole of
Europe.
8. ROLE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE I (Ref: Role of France part
(a) in the unification of Italy.)
9. ROLE OF NAPOLEON III (Ref: Role of France from part (d)
10. ROLE OF BISMARCK AND KING WILLIAMI (Ref: Role of Prussia)
11. ROLE OF GLADSTONE, the new British Prime Minister (from
1859) and his Foreign Secretary,
JOHN RUSSELL (Ref Role of Britain)
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