Saturday 31 December 2016

Egypt 1855 -1914





Mohammad   Ali who  ruled  Egypt  from-1805  -  1849 made  the  foundation  for the modem state of Egypt. Before  the reign  of Mohammed  Ali, Egypt  had suffered series of succession invasions  such as the French and finally the Nationals  of Turkish  Empire.
During  the  time  of  Mohammed   Ali,  he struggled   to  make  Egypt  independent   from  the Turkish   rule  but  he  failed.   Despite   this, he  undertook    measures   to  strengthen   Egypt militarily,  economically   and socially.
He was profoundly  influenced  by modernised  ideas of the French  and be admired European ways  of life. In  his internal  policy,  he employed  many  European   experts  in Agriculture, Education,   industry  and  civil  service.  His aim  was  to  create  a modem  state  like  that  of France.
To improve Agriculture,  he constructed  canals,  improved  irrigation  schemes  and promoted cotton  growing.  In the sector  of industry,  he started  an iron  and steel  industry  set up ship building  plants and textile industries.  In the field of Education  he encouraged  the growth  of educated   class  with  Western   civilisation.    He  set  up  schools   and  employed   European teachers.    By  the   time   of  his  death   in  1849,  he  had  brought    Egypt   on  the  way   to modernisation  by promoting  education,  agriculture  industry  and commerce.
In his foreign  policy,  Mohammed   Ali wanted  to promote  Egypt's   glory abroad  and secure her  independence   from  Turkey.  In  1820 he invaded  and  occupied  Sudan  and  formed  the Turko-Egyptian    government    partly   because   he  wanted   glory  and  partly  for  economic exploitation  of Sudan's  resources.  By 1849, he had cooperated  with Britain  and France  and exported this alien influence  to Sudan.
In 1849, the foundation for modern Egypt  had been complete under the effort of Mohammed Ali: by using European ideas, he had created  a sound economy,  developed  and
promoted  education  for growth  of western  cultures  made  Egypt  strong  producer  of cotton worldwide  and established  a national  army that was inherited  by his successors.
More  important  was that he had maintained  a successful  foreign  policy and he had avoided "traps"  of European  moneylenders.
NB
Mohammad   Ali  achieved   all  this  using  Egyptian   resources.    His  successors   therefore
inherited  a sound economy  with no debts. It was the mismanagement   of the economy  and the  borrowing   excessively    from  the  European   money   lenders   by  his  successors   that endangered   Egyptian  independence   that was taken  over  by Britain  in 1882 in attempts  to recover  the borrowed  money  by Egyptian  kings.
REGIME   OF  ABBAS I 0849-1853).
After  the  death  of  Mohammed    Ali,  Egypt  was  taken  over  by  people   who  lacked  his qualities.  Abbas  I who ruled  from  1849-53  was  almost  an exact  opposite  of Mohammed Ali. He was a deeply  conservative   Muslim  fundamentalist   who  destroyed  modernisation that Mohammed  Ali had attempted  to develop.
He  was  totally   opposed   to  Western   influence   which  he  considered    dangerous   to  the development  of Islam  in Egypt.  His first step was to expel all European  experts  employed formally  by Mohammed  Ali.
The Schools,  Factories  and agriculture   were  all abandoned  after dismissing  the European adviser.  His  opposition   to  western   influence   was  the  only  achievement   of  his regime. Although   it  contributed    nothing   to  the  real   development    of  Egypt.   Such  a  kind  of frustration   in Egypt  couldn't   continue   for  long.  In 1853  he  died  with  his  unbecoming nationalism.
REGIME   OF MOHAMMED    SAID (1853 -  1963)
He  had   been   educated   in  France   and   therefore   highly   Westernised    as  France   was considered   the most  cultured  European   society.  Although   a moslem,  he had  very  many christian   European   friends   whose  words   he  trusted   most.  He  hoped   to continue   with Mohammed   Ali's  idea of modernising   Egypt  but he lacked  Ali's  shrewd  sense of realism and therefore  his policies were full of exaggerated  ambitions.
For  instance  to strengthen  economic  prosperity   for commercialists   in Egypt.  he lifted  all restrictions   on private  enterprises   and  restored   private  ownership   of  land.  He abolished monopolies   in trade  and allowed  foreign  goods  to be imported  untaxed.  He was so short sighted  enougb  that  he could  not  see  the  negative   impact  such  policies  would  cause  to Egyptian  economy.
During  bis reign,  Egypt  became  a centre  for European   groups  as one  historian  observed that;
"In his regime,  Egypt  became  a happy hunting  ground  for promoters  of various schemes  of improvement   that attracted  European  bankers  in Egypt  who were only eager   to  advance    loans   to  Egyptian    economy    on  conditions    favourable    to themselves".
His regime  witnessed  an excessive  influx  of Europeans  fully intentioned  to exploit  Egypt.
One  of the schemes  of investment  attempted   by Mohammed  Said  was  the building  of the Suez canal  to link the Mediterennean   sea to the Red  sea. The concession   to construct  the canal  was  granted  to a French  engineer  called  Ferdinard  De Lesseps  on terms  that were not favourable  to Egypt at all. For example;
i.        That    Egypt   was  to  provide   labour   for  the  construction    of  Suez  canal   and  provide
substantial  proportion   of other  costs.  Therefore,   Egypt  was to pay  for construction   of the canal in their own land and yet Europeans  had excessive  benefits  in the project  I
11.    That  Egypt  was tu give  the company  of De  lesseps  a stretch  of territory  from  which  the water  for irrigation  could  be taken.  This  would  deprive  Egypt  of a considerable arable  territory  which  she badly needed.
Ill.    That  the majority  of the profits  were  to remain  with  the French  shareholders.   With  such tricky  laid  terms  work  hard  to begin  in 1859-. To  a large  extent,  this  concession would  serve just  to exploit  Egypt  in the whole  scheme.
On  recomendaton    of  his  European   advisors,   Said  had  to  borrow  loans  from  European bankers  to meet  such  financial  challenges.   By the  time  of his  death  in  1863. Egypt  had borrowed   14 million   pounds  with  high interest   rate  from  European   bankers   especially Britain  and France.  It was this weak  financial  position  that Khedive  Ismail Pasha  inherited that provided  a background  for loss of Egyptian  independence   in 1882.
THE  REGIEME    OF ISMAIL   PASHA  <KHEDIVE)   1863-1879.
Mohammed   Said  was succeeded   by Ismail  Pasha  a grand  son of Mohammed   Ali in 1863. He was  also  known  as Khedive  Ismail  and he is said to have  lacked  cleverness  and sense of proportion   that Egypt  needed  at the time to continue  with reforms  as the ones begun  by Mohammed   Ali.  Ismail  was  a statesman   who  was  held responsible   for Egyptian   loss of independence   in 1882.
He  was  a moderniser    and  proud  of  Good  ideas  of  Western   civilisation   but  he  lacked cleverness   and  sense  of  proportionality    to carry  out  his  plans  successfully.   He  tried  to implement   everything   too  quickly   and  on  large  scale  for  his  economy.   In his  internal policy  he  wanted   to build  a strong  economy  by  developing   agriculture,   industralisation and trade.
He also wanted  to develop  Western  education  elite class  by establishing  modem  Schools and universities.   In addition  to tins,  he wished  to develop  a modern  transport  system  and communication   network  in Egypt  using borrowed  resources.
1n his foreign  policy  he wanted  to secure  the independence   of Egypt  from the control  of Turkey.   He  also   wanted   to  promote   the  Egyptian   glory   by  maintaining    the  foreign occupation   of Sudan  that was began  by his grandfather   Mohammed   Ali and extended  his influence  up to the source  of River  Nile. He also wanted  to promote  the cause  of Islam  by wiping  out  Christianity   in the Northeast   Africa.  His  aims  were  therefore  very  ambitious and hence he needed  enough  financial  support  that was not available  in Egypt at the time.
Before  he  could  achieve   any  of his  aims,  he  had  to secure  greater  Egyptian   autonomy (independence)   from the Sultan  of Turkey.  This  he couldn't   do it militarily  and therefore he paid  a lot  in terms  of money  and  gold  to the  sultan  of Turkey  in return  for Egyptian independence.   In  1867 therefore  Egypt became  a semi autonomous   State and Ismail Pasha secured  himself  a title of "Khedive".   This  title made  him a sovereign  leader  in Egypt  and gave him almost  a complete  independence   in Egyptian  decisions.
With   this   new   status,    Khedive    Ismail    had   freedom    to  undertake    all  projects    of modernisation.    His  aim  was  to modernise   Egypt  on  the  model  of  France  just  like  his
 grandfather  and establish  'a strong  Empire.  [n  his attempts  to modernise   Egypt overnight, he built  over 8000  miles  of irrigation  canals;' 1000 miles of railway  lines,  5000 miles  of telegraph    lines,  450  bridges,   4500   elementary    schools   and  built   a  modern   port   of Alexandria.                                                
To promote  higher  education,  he established  three schools  to train University  graduates  in medicine,  engineering  and Law. In addition he organised  the customs  system and banking systems were extended  to all urban centers after the construction  of national bank in Cairo. In his regime,  Suez Canal was completed  and opened  in 1869. Cairo was also rebuilt  with many modem  streets, hotels,  recreational  centres  and an Opera   house.
These  schemes  brought  a lot of growth  in social infrastructure   and increased  the Egyptian Economic  output. In a short run, the annual  agricultural  output  greatly  improved  as Egypt became  an important producer  of cotton Worldwide,  It became known  for many European states  that began  struggling   to  import  cotton  raw  materials   to  their  textile  industries  at     ..
home hence leading to the development  of the Egyptian  Economy.
As .soon as he came  to the throne.  Ismail  embarked  on the policy  of Stamping  out slave trade.  He did this  by forming  a police  force  that he stationed  on River  Nile  to intercept slave  traders  on boats.  He later used  European  officials  like Charles  Gordon  and Samuel Baker  whom  he stationed  in Sudan  to carry  out administration   as well as stopping  slave trade  activities.   He  preferred   using  these  Europeans   because   they  were  less  corrupt, Christians  and naturally  anti Slavery.
As far as political  developments   are concerned,  Ismail  created  a Chamber  of notables  to act as partners.  However  this   chamber  of deputies  highly  placed  was  not a fully-Hedged democrative   body  because  its members   were  from  high  property   qualified   people   and represented   only a wealthier  class.  The peasants,  the commoners   and pastoralists  didn't matter   in  his  government    and   their   taxes   remained    high   despite   the  tremendous' improvement  of the Egyptian  Economy.
The  eurocentric   and  afrocentric   scholars  viewed  his character   in a contrasting   way  for example the British imperialists  such as Lord Crommer  described  him as;
" ...  A weak  cunning  and  selfish  pleasure  seeker  who  borrowed   a lot of money
from  Europeans   and  later turned  against  them,  ungratefully   refused  to pay them    back".                                                                                                                                    
However   other  people  especially   Egyptian   nationalists   and  their  sympathizers   hold  a different  view about him e.g. an American  writer Crobites  described  him as
" ...  A shrewd;  progressive   and  enlightened   ruler  with  basic  interests  in
heart and unlucky ruler   a victim of swindling  tricks of European bankers". Each of these views was an extreme  but to some measure  carried  some truth. What's  clear is that Ismail  Pasha  had  good  intentions  for his country  but  he lacked  the means  to put them into reality.

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