Development of Plantation Agriculture in East Africa

This  was  one  of  the  main  characteristic    features   of  colonial   economy.   Much  as  the Europeans  openly claimed  that the motive  for their coming  into Africa  in general  and East Africa  in particular  was humanitarian   but their covert  aim was economic  exploitation  and cash crop growing in plantation  farms such as coffee, cotton, cloves, rubber  and cocoa was one of the methods  used.
In East Africa,  in 1902 the crown  land ordinance  was passed  in Kenya.  It established  the loyalty  of setting,  granting  and  leasing  of an unoccupied  land.  It also  allowed  land to be leased  for 99 years at the rent of few cents  per acre. This was followed  by introduction  of series  of  crops  such  as the  1903  introduction   of cottonseeds   in Uganda.   By K. Borug, Arabic  coffee introduced  in Kenya  in 1899. SIsal in East Africa  was  first planted  at Thika in  1904. In 1904 still,  tea growing  was  introduced  in Limuru.  Rubber  was  introduced  in Kenya  around  1902 and by 1914 it had become  one of the leading exports.
All the above crops were planted  on large scale by colonial  governments  in Uganda Cotton, Coffee,  Sugar  cane  and  tea  plantations   were  encouraged   by  the  colonialists.   Individual Africans  were  likewise  encouraged   to produce  these crops  and sell them  to the plantation owners most of whom were Asians and Europeans.
Cloves,  sisal  and  cotton  have  come  to  determine   the  agricultural   cash  crop  income  of Tanganyika  up to present,  coffee, pyrethrum,  tea and agricultural  cash crop sector while  in Uganda,  up to 19605 cotton  was the leading  export of Uganda  before  it was taken oyer b) coffee production.
Factors that favoured the development of plantation agriculture in East Africa
1.      Abundant  land:
During  the colonial  era,  East  Africa  was  sparsely  populated.  In some  places,  the natives were displaced  by force as, for example,  the Nandi  of Kenya  were  forced  out of their land in 1906. The presence  of such  large  tracts  of  land  encouraged   the  colonialists   and their Asian allies to establish plantations  cheaply.
2.   Availability  of labourers:
The Africans were convinced  to work in plantations  such as at Kinyara,  Kericho  tea estates,
Mbuga  cotton  estates  in Central  Tanganyika,   clove  farms  in Zanzibar   and  Lugazi  sugar estates  in Uganda.  This was  in return  for a few cents  or even gifts  like shoes,  clothes  and mirrors.
Incases   whre Africans  refused  to work-willingly,   force was applied  as for instance  among the  Pogoro  people  of central  Tanganyika   who .resisted  the  cotton  growing  exercise  that became  a sparking point for Maji-Maji  rebellion  in t905-1907.
3.       Presence  of enougb capital  on European  side:
Indians,  British  and German   colonialists   were  becoming   increasingly   industrialised   and sufficient  supply  of excessive   profits  from the metropolitan   governments   culminated  into plantation  Agriculture.
More  to this,  Indian  coolies  who  had  come  to work  on the railway,  saved  a lot of money while  others  had earned  money  in form of accident  compensation   on railway  construction all of which  provided  capital  that was used later in cash crop farming.
4.       Construction  of Uganda  railway:
As noted  earlier,  the railway  like construction   did not stop at Kisumu  but it went as far as interior  of East  Africa  as Namasagali,    Soroti,  Kasese,  Gulu  and  Pakwach.  Therefore,  the crops  like tea from  western  Uganda  cotton  from Busoga  or tobacco  from West Nile could be easily exported  to Europe partly  using the trains.
5.       Impact  of supportive  climate:
There  were  also  favourable   natural   factors  like  enough  and  reliable   rainfall,   moderate temperatures,   water  bodies  for irrigation,  sufficient  sunshine  and fertile  soils.  Such factors which   are  common   in  East  Africa   encouraged   naturally   the  development    of plantation agriculture.
6.       The settlers Advent  influence:
The  arrival  of settlers  in East  Africa  like Lord  Delamare,   K. Borup,  Sir Hasketh  Bell and many  others  especially  in Kenya  Highlands  became  the main plantation   owners.  Even the Indian coolies who remained  in East Africa  after the railway  became  the leading plantation fanners.
7.       Introduction  of taxation  system  in East Africa:
The colonial  governments  introduced  heavy  taxes in East Africa.  In the Buganda  agreement of  1900, for example,  hut tax and gun tax were introduced.  These  taxes  forced people to go and  work   even   on  low  pay   in  ~e   plantations.    Likewise,    the   fear  of  tax  defaulting punishments,   made people  to go and work in plantation  farms so as to get money.
8.       The general monetization  of the East African economy                                                  .
Before  coloniasation,   the East  Africans  relied  on barter  trade  or subsistence   farming.  But with  the  introduction   of  Money   economy,   everything   required   the  use  of money  which made  Africans   to offer  manual   labour   or  grow  side  cash  crops  to  sell to  Asians  and Europeans.                                                                                        
9.        Desire  of Europeans  to employ  African  slaves  in their own homes.  Following  the industrial revolution   and the invention  of machines,  slaves  became  useless  and there  in Europe  and America   slaves  were  repatriated   to Africa  such  as Creoles   in Liberia  and  Sierra  Leone while  the  would  be  slaves  from  Africa  to Europe  were  actively   involved   in plantation farming  work.
The effects of cash crop introduction in East africa
On set, one  should  note  that  this was  one  of the  avenues  of  convert  colonial  economic
exploitation   and  the  effects  were  largely  favourable   to  the  colonisers   and  negative   to
Africans.
1.      Land alienation:
This was  done  for the  establishment   of the  white  owned  plantation   farms  e.g. in Kenya highlands  miles  of land  were  reserved  for exclusive  white  settlement   and their  farms  as Africans were pushed  away.
To reserve  the camps,  the  1904 British  Masai  agreement   was  signed  which  pushed  the Masai  to arid areas,  the  1900 Buganda  agreement  that divided  Buganada  land  into mailo and Crown lands, the Chagga  were pushed to the top of Mt. Kilimanjaro  leaving the fertile plains for Arabic coffee by the whites.
2.       The introduction  of import-export  trade economy:
Through  this system,  East Africans  were  made to consume  what  they didn't  produce  and produce  what  they  didn't   consume.  That  is;  the specialisation   oof  labour  and  division  of skills  where  European   goods  were  consumed  by Africans  and  East African' Agricultural products were taken as raw materials  to European  industries.
The greatest disadvantage  with this was that whites had had a monopoly  hand of fixing the prices  for both East African  imports  and exports  thus leaving  the  East Africans  exploited price wise.
3.       Exploitation  of labour:
Labour exploitation  was in different  related  forms in European  farms. This labour would be
011 white owned plantation  farms secured  at a free cost 01'  cheaply  paid involving  flogging at times at any sign of resistance  sometimes  labour  exploitation   would be faced Indirectly on African  cash crop small farms where they toiled to produce  cash crops that were paid to little.
On Africans,  this forced  labour  bad series  of negative  effects  such  as: there was  unequal exchange  (labour  exploitation),   migrant  labour  and  its dangers  (prostitution,   divorce  etc) and  at times  it resulted  into  rebellions  e.g.  Nyangire   rebellion   in Kigezi,  Maji-Maji  and Mau- Mau resistance.
4.       Decline of food production:
The over emphasis  by colonialists  on  the  growing  of cash crop policy,  resulted into scarcity of  food  and  later  famine.   As  for  example   forced  cotton   growing   scheme  in  southern Tanganyika   led to  famine  that  resulted  into  Maji-Maji  uprising,   forceful  introduction   of coffee  growing  in Buganda  hence  the origin  of the name  "Kiboko"   meaning  a whip.  This greatly reduced food production  in Buganda,
5.   Taxation:
This aimed at conditioning  the natives  to develop  a forceful  need  for money  so as to work in white plantation  farms to raise the required  taxes, from their miserable  wages. Other than this, the natives  were. expected  to sell their.P~    individual, cash crops and pay the proceeds tv the government  in form  of taxes. Examples  of the common  taxes  included:  Hut tax, gun tax, hunting  tax, brewing  tax  poll tax and others.
6.       Monetisation  ofthe  economy:
This was the convenient  means  of buying the cash crops. 'this replaced  the barter system  of trade  that existed  in East  Africa  before  the coming  of colonialists.   This  system  was  also
helpful   in  taxation   system.    Moreover,   for  effective   exploitation    of  East  Africa,   the metropolitan   economies   had  to be integrated  with  those  of East Africa  and this could  be easily done by introduction  of the monetary  Economy.
7.     Development  of modern  transport:
For  efficient   and  effective   exploitation,    of  Cash  crops,   the  British,   German,   French, Belgium  and Portuguese  colonisers  deemed  it fit to construct  roads,  railways  and ports. A railway  line was cheap  and convenient   means  of transporting   bulky  raw materials  to the coast  and  distribute  European   products   in  the  interior  of  East  Africa.  E.g.  the  Uganda railway  meant  to tap coffee,  cotton  and copper  from Uganda,  the Usambara  railway  line tapping  Coffee from Kilimanjaro.
8.       Influx of whites:
White  flocked  East Africa  to have a fortune  from producing  cash crbps, the Boers who had been  defeated   by the  British   in  the  second   Anglo-Boer   left  their  destroyed   farms  and preferred   to  start  afresh   in  the  Kenya  Highlands   where   they  established   the  gigantic plantations.  The construction   of Uganda  railway  .further  accelerated   the  influx   of whireo  in the  interior  as the  means  of communication   have  been  improved   through  Mombasa  and Kilwa port where Tanzam  Railway  starts
9.       Emergency  of scientific  research:
Agricultural   research  stations  were put  in place  to promote  the high  breech in agriculture and curtail  the possibility  of reduction  in output  as a result  of diseases  and poor agronomic practices.    Thus  in  Tanganyika    they  established    a  maximum   Biological   and  scientific research   institute   which  undertook   the  study  of  physical   sciences   in animals  and  plant diseases  at Dodoma in 1911.          
Lord Delamere  pioneered  research  of the wheat  rust diseases  and successfully  combated  it leading  to the  establishment    of "Unga  Flour  mill"  in Nairobi,   the  first flour  factory  in Kenya.
10.    Establishment  of processing  industries:
These  were  meant  to reduce  the  weight  of the  bulk-y cash  crop  raw  materials,   for  easy transportation   and  shipment   to the  metropolitan   countries   thus  cotton  ginneries,   coffee whalers,  sisal  processing   etc.  were  put  in place.  These  industries   also provided  some  of form of employment.
11.    Plantation  agriculture  encouraged  the migrant  labour:
People  moved  from  different   parts  of  East  Africa  to  go  and  offer  their  labour  in the plantations  such as the one of Tea and Sugarcane.  Some workers  could only earn what was
enough  to cater  for  themselves.,  They  could  stay  outside  their  homes  for years  with  no assistance  to their families.  This case in Uganda  was common  where the northern  tribes and Bakiga-Banyankole   came  to work in cotton  and coffee  plantations  among  the Baganda  for a living.
12.   Population  patterns  in East Africa became revolutionised:
For  example,   in  Kenya,   places   like  Kericho,   Thika  and  Eldoret  became   more  thickly populated  because  people  moved  there  in order  to benefit  either directly  or indirectly  from the plantation   farms.  Likewise,   in Uganda,  areas  surrounding   Lugazi  Sugar  factory  were affected,  Kakonde   tea  growers   in  Mityana,  Mwere  Tea  estates  in Mubende  all attracted labourers  from different  regions  of Uganda  who finally  settled  tl.ere permanently.
13.    Urbanisation  impact:
This  was another  effect  of plantation   agriculture.   There  was massive  growth  of towns  as more people  moved  to  stay  near  plantation   schemes.  As for example  in Kenya,  Kericho, Thika, Limuri,  in Uganda  Lugazi, Mityana and Kinyara  all developed  into important  towns.
14.    Advancement  of infrastructural   facilities:
In addition   to railway   tines  as seen  earlier,  there  was  development   of Telephone   lines, schools  such  as Kakira  S.S, Kericho  agricultural  reasearch   institute  among  others  built  to cater  for  the  children   of  plantation   employees.    Likewise,    hospitals,   dispensaries    and markets  grew up in the vicinity  of the plantation  farms.
In conclusion  therefore,  the plantation  agriculture  in East Africa  in particular  and Africa  in general,   was  the  main   characteristic    feature   of  covert   colonial   economy   centered   on growing  of cash crops  with  a lot of positive  benefits  to Europeans   and negative  effects  to Africans although  in the field of infrastructure  Africans  benefited  accidentally
Revision  questions.
1.         Discuss  the view that the history  of Congo  between  1880-1914  can be summed  up in three words "exploitation,   oppression  and resistance".
2.       How was African  land and labour exploited  in Congo Free State between  1885-1908?
3.     Discuss   the  effects  of colonial   economic   policies   on  the  people   of any  African   region before the  1st World  War.
4.       "As  far  as  economic   development    is  concerned    colonial   economy   in Africa   was  for
underdevelopmers.  " Comment.
5.    Discuss  the methods  employed  by Europeans   in the exploitation   of either Congo,  Uganda, Angola or Mozambique.
6.       How  did  Leopold  1I attain  and consolidate   his power  over  the  Congo  between   1876 and
1908?
7.       Examine  tilt impact of colonial  economic  policies  in East Africa.
8.       What facers encouraged  the development  of plantation  agriculture  in East Africa:
9.       Assess the colonial  economic  effects on the growing  of plantation  cash crops in
Tanganyika  by 1914.