THE ROLE OF GREAT POWERS IN THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY

THE ROLE OF GREAT POWERS IN THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY

The role of great powers in the unification of Italy was double folded i.e. both negative and positive. The European powers who played a significant role in a unification of Italy were France, Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia. These powers hindered the unification process in the initial stages from 1796 to 1850 but accelerated or favoured it between 1850 to 1870. Their roles both positive and negative are as discussed below.

FRANCE

a) France is credited for laying foundation for the unification of Italy. Napoleon I conquered and inspired the Italians with revolutionary doctrines of equality, liberty and nationalism. He also reduced the number of Italian states from 13 to 3, which made the Italians to be closer to each other and hence developed the idea of unification. However, Napoleon Ill's exploitation and oppressions of the Italians was a contradiction of his prophesied policies and made the Italians to form the Carbonari movement to throw him out of their territory. The Carbonari continued resisting foreign influence and advocating for Italian freedom and unity even after the overthrow of Napoleon.

b). After the overthrow of Napoleon, the restored Bourbon monarchs i.e. Louis XVHI and Charles X continued supporting Austria's domination and oppression of the Italians. For example, in 1821, the Carbonari succeeded in overthrowing Ferdinand VII of Naples but Louis XVIII suppressed the revolution and restored Ferdinand to his throne. This partly explains why the Carbonari Movement failed to unify Italy.

c). In 1830, Louis Philippe failed to assist the Italians against Austria and this partly contributed to the failure of the 1830 revolution in Italy. He had initially promised to assist the Italians but the fear of losing support from Catholics in France and Europe forced him to refuse to assist the Italians. This greatly frustrated the Italians in their unification movement.

d.) Napoleon Ill's military intervention in Italy in 1848 destroyed the last attempt in the unification of Italy before 1850. He sent French troops under General Oudinot who destroyed the Roman Republic that had been established by Garibaldi and Mazzinni. They occupied Rome, restored the Pope and protected the

Pope up to 1870, This denied the Italians the opportunity of using Rome as a base for mobilization and led to the vulnerability of other states like Venice and Sicily that were re-occupied by Austrian troops It has to be re-emphasized that the presence of the French troops in Rome made it impossible for the Italians to conquer and make it part of a united Italy. They repulsed all attempts by Garibaldi to conquer Rome.

e). However, France from 1859 played a positive role in the unification of Italy. Napoleon III of France signed the Pact of Plombieres with Cavour in 1858 and promised to assist Piedmont in liberating Lombardy and Venetia from Austria. This was partly achieved in 1859 when Napoleon III sent 20.000 French troops that helped Piedmont to liberate Lombardy. After the liberation of Lombardy. Napoleon mentored Milan and urged the Italians to unite for their freedom, he told them to; Use the good fortune that presents itself to you, your dream of independence will be realized if you show yourself worthy of it Unite yourself for the liberation of the country.

This speech raised Italian nationalism to the maximum and provoked the Central Duchies of Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the Southern states to revolt and expel Austrian rulers. This was also because the defeat of Austria had left them more confident in Piedmont as a centre of unification. In 1860, Napoleon III supported and programmed the referendum through which the states of Parma, Modena and Tuscany were annexed to Piedmont This created more morale and determination in the Italians to the extent that Cavour who had resigned resumed his post of Premiership. Later when Victor

Emmanuel II sought Napoleon Ill's attitude about the annexation of Umbria and Marches, his reply was simply, "Do it quickly". This encouraged Victor Emmanuel to attack and occupy the Papal States in September 1860.

Napoleon III of France guaranteed Russia's neutrality and hence frustrated Austro-Russian Alliance against Italian unification movement. He signed an agreement with Tsar Alexander II in March 1859 in which he promised to assist him to violate the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty in return for Russia's neutrality in the 1859 war. This is partly the reason why Russia refused to assist Austria in the battles of Magenta and Salfarino.

However, France is accused for the annexation of Nice and Savoy in 1860 as a compensation for her assistance in the liberation of Lombardy. This was very unrealistic because he had left Venetia, yet the Plombieres agreement included Venetia.

The greatest accusation against Napoleon III is that although he wanted Italy free from Austria, he never wanted a united Italy. This according to him would alter the military balance of power against him. This is why he changed his mind and signed the Truce of Villafranca with Austria in which he stopped the war and refused to assist Piedmont in the fight for Venetia. This is partly why the liberation of Venetia was delayed up to 1866.

2. BRITAIN:

Britain was a big force behind the Vienna Settlement of I8I5 that legalized Austria's domination of Italian affairs. The Settlement also re-divided Italian states into 12 out of the 3that were forged by Napoleon Bonaparte. This strengthened Austria's interest of maintaining a divided Italy for her selfish imperialistic ambitions.

Although Britain was a liberal, democratic and a constitutionally guided nation, she was against Italian unification for it would destroy the balance of power and affect her trade in the Italian Peninsular besides Britain had anon-interventionist foreign policy. This explains why she declined to assist the Italians in 1820, 1821, 1830 and 1848 revolution. The British attitude and policies left Austria with a free hand to crush all revolutionary movements for the unification of Italy by 1850.

Nevertheless, the British attitude after the 1856 Paris Peace Conference changed in favour of Italian unification. Her sympathy and moral support to the Italians in the 1856 Paris Peace Conference is what motivated Napoleon III to give military assistance in the liberation of Lombardy. Had Britain not sympathized with the Italians at the conference, probably Napoleon III, who had always been keen not to fight a war against the British will, would not have rendered such assistance.

In 1860, when the Central Duchies of Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Romagna revolted, Britain assisted them to join Piedmont. She went beyond being neutral and Russell (Foreign Secretary) proposed a referendum that made those states to join Piedmont.

In 1860 still, Britain allowed Garibaldi and his 1,000 red-shirt army to land at Port Marsala and liberate two islands of Sicily and Naples. The powerful detachment of British troops declined to open fire at Ganbaldi which made him to land safely and liberate Sicily. After Sicily, Garibaldi was granted a free passage by the British Naval troops who were guarding the Port of Massina that connected the two islands.

Otherwise, if Britain had decided to block him (being the world's naval power), he would not have liberated Naples.

It must be recapitulated that the neutrality of the British in the liberation of Sidy and Naples frustrated the efforts of Austria and France who were bent on blocking Garibaldi and his 1.000 soldiers from conquering the two islands. Britain even went ahead to threaten France and Austria with war and this made them to back down. From yet another point of view, the attitude of Britain affected Napoleon HI and made him to renounce (violate) the truce of Villafranca and started supporting the Italians once again. This is why he supported the referendum through which the Central Duchies joined Piedmont.

The neutrality of the British was very important in the liberation of Venetia and Rome. If Britain had sided with Austria in 1866 the Italians would have failed to liberate Venetia. Similarly, if Britain had assisted France in 1870, Napoleon III would not have withdrawn the French troops from Rome and the liberation of Rome that completed the unification of Italy would perhaps not have been in 1870.

3. PRUSSIA

Prussia was a major signatory to the Vienna Settlement of 1815 that became a death warrant to the Italian unification by 1850. The reactionary, conservative and anti-liberal

Prussian Junkers were Austria's allies from 1815 to 1850’s. this strengthened Austria's domination of the Italians states, which delayed the unification.

However after 1860 Prussia played a positive role in the unification of Italy. She assisted in the liberation of Venetia in 1866. Prussia that was fighting for the unification of Germany allied with Italy against Austria. Prussia promised to force Austria out of Venetia for the' Italians. Although Italian troops were defeated, the Prussian troops were able to finally defeat Austria at Sadowa. According to the terms of the alliance, Italy was given Venetia at the Treaty of Prague in 1867.

In 1870, Prussia indirectly helped Italy to acquire Rome. This was through the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. It forced Napoleon III to withdraw the French troops from Rome. This gave Victor Emmanuel II an open chance to annex Rome and transfer his capital from Turin in Piedmont to Rome. Thus, the role of Prussia was the most important in the final unification of Italy. Without this, as Usher Chopra argues,

...The purpose of Italian unification would be incomplete ... like that of body without a heart".

4. RUSSIA:

Russia was led by a despotic, conservative and anti-liberal Kings called Tsars. Tsar Alexander I and others after him were in total support of Austria's acquisition, domination and oppression through the Vienna Settlement of 1815.

Tsar Nicholas I who succeeded Alexander I indirectly helped Austria to suppress the 1848 revolution in Italy. He suppressed the 1848 revolution in Hungary and left the Austrian troops free to deal with Italian revolutionaries. Had Tsar Nicholas I not done so, the Austrian forces would have been divided and possibly the Italians could have succeeded in their movement.

Russia declined to support the Italian unification because of Piedmont's participation in the Crimean War against her. Even if she had wanted to frustrate or accelerate the process of Italian unification, she could not intervene because of the Black Sea Clause that restricted her within almost only her boundaries By the time the Black Sea Clause ceased to exist in 1871, it was already too late for her to intervene whether positively or negatively in the Italian unification.

5. AUSTRIA

Austria's role in the unification of Italy was purely negative. In the first place, she hosted the Vienna Settlement and later used the Congress System to maintain a divided Italy. Austria had direct control over Lombardy and Venetia. Indirectly, Austria used conservative and anti-unification Hapsburg rulers in states like, Parma, Modena and Tuscany. These rulers were very effective in frustrating Italian unification from 1820’s up to 1850.

Austria was very successful in suppressing all unification movements by 1850. Metternich used a combination of diplomacy and force to block the unification of Italy. For instance, the Carbonari risings of 1820 1821 and 1831 were crushed by Metternich's regular and reserve soldiers. In 1848, it was the Austrian troops that defeated the Italians at the battles of Custozza and Novara and dashed away Italian hopes for unification.

Austria was also influential in protecting the Pope after 1849. The Austrian troops assisted the French to safeguard the Pope in Rome up to 1870. This is what among others delayed the liberation of Rome up to from 1850-1866, Austria resisted all attempts to unify Italy. In 1859, she resisted the liberation of Lombardy and only gave up after the Magenta and Salfarino defeats. She clung on Venetia until 1866 when she was ejected out by the Italians and Prussian troops.

Generally, Austria excelled in dominating Italian states, France in laying a foundation and partially unifying Italy and Prussia succeeded where the French had failed. Britain amongst other powers offered moral support while Russia often acted as expected i.e. hindering Italian unification in favour of Austria's domination.