METHODS USED BY METTERNICH TO CONTROL EUROPEAN AFFAIRS OR HOW METTERNICH CONSOLIDATED HIS POWER/ SUPREMARCY IN EUROPE FROM 1815 -1848

METTERNICH

He was born on 15 May 1773 at Coblenz in the Rhine lands in Prussia. His full name was Klemens Wensel Nepomuk Lothas Von Metternich. In 1792, the invading French army forced him to flee to Austria from where he married the granddaughter of Austrian chancellor, Princess Kaunitz of Marie Theresa. This increased his prestige, respect, rights and influence in Austria and aided his rise to power. Indeed, it was the then Austrian chancellor who gave him the high sounding title Prince Von Metternich in 1813.

In 1809, Metternich was made the minister of foreign affairs of Austria and in 1821, he became the chancellor of the Austrian empire following his achievements at the Vienna settlement and the congress system. Using these positions, he dominated European politics to such an extent that the period 1815 - 1848 has been referred to as the Metternich period and himself as the coachman of European affairs.

Metternich graduated at Strasbourg University in France and later Mainz between 1790 - 1792. He specialized in diplomacy although he was equally interested in linguistics, history, science and astronomy.

By birth, Metternich was from aristocratic family where the new forces of nationalism, liberalism and democracy were bitterly resented. This together with his experience of the reign of terror in Prance made him to believe that revolutions of the French type were the greatest enemy of the aristocracy and indeed the people. He described the French revolution and all that it stood for as; The disease which must be cured by the volcano which must be extinguished, the gangrene which must be burnt out with a hot Iron, the hydra with Jaws open to swallow up the social order". To him, democracy could "change day light into darkest night

He initiated the Metternich system in an attempt to maintain the Vienna settlement where the European aristocrats were to hang together in order to keep under key and lock the forces of nationalism, liberalism and democracy. The system hinged on the principle ofpeace and no change. The major objectives of the Metternich system were;

i) Preservation of European peace

ii) Preservation of the Austrian empire from the forces of nationalism and liberalism.

iii) Maintaining for the European aristocrats their privileges against the new forces of change. Generally the Metternich system aimed at protecting the old socio-economic and political order against the threats of revolutionary disruptions.

However, Metternich's dominance of European affairs was superficial and temporary. The forces of nationalism and liberalism had come to stay. He could only buy time by suppressing and yet not altering the momentum. No wonder that the very forces that he had devoted his lifetime to suppress forced him to abdicate and flee to exile in 1848 i.e. through the 1848 revolutions. His downfall strengthened Italian and German nationalism, which greatly weakened the Austrian empire

METHODS USED BY METTERNICH TO CONTROL EUROPEAN AFFAIRS OR HOW METTERNICH CONSOLIDATED HIS POWER/ SUPREMARCY IN EUROPE FROM 1815 -1848

Metternich was the most famous statesman produced by Austria in the 19^^ century. He was the prince of diplomacy and was thoroughly at ease with the diplomatic affairs of Europe between 1815 - 1848. He used both force and diplomacy to influence European affairs and consolidate his power.

i) Metternich posted foreign officers to administer different areas to check on nationalistic movements.

For instance, Croatians were sent to Slovenia, Poles to Austria, Austrians to Hungary, Italians to Germany and vice versa. Being foreign, these officers monitored and suppressed nationalistic movements such as the Carbonary and Young Italian Movements very effectively. This explains why Austria herself survived the 1830 revolutions in Europe. Revolutions within the empire were easily suppressed by the very foreign officials e.g. In Italian and German states.

ii) Metternich also used censorship of the press and control of communication in a bid to seal off the empire from liberal and nationalistic ideas. A censor official was appointed at Vienna to approve all books, newspapers and publications. A special office was set at Vienna for opening, recording and resealing all foreign informations. Through such a network, Metternich was able to know liberal sympathizers, their agents, strategies or targets.

iii) In the German states, Metternich secured for Austria the post of the president of the German diet/parliament. This was a vital post since the president decided on the issues to be discussed and the protocol to be followed. Using this power, he was able to block most of the reforms that would have strengthened German states. Metternich persuaded all the German states to limit the subjects to be discussed in parliament which also limited liberalism and liberal issues in the diet (parliament).

iv) Metternich enacted the Carlsbad decree as a counter offensive against German nationalism that had climaxed into the murder of Kotzbue. By its provisions, student's associations were abolished and ail German universities were to have government inspectors, a spy network to monitor activities of lecturers and students, the press was censored and measures were enacted by which the diet could use the army to suppress revolutions in any German state. The effectiveness of these measures explains why the Germans hardly organised any movement contrary to the Italians before 1848.

v) In Italy, Metternich's position was secured by direct and indirect control. Austria under him gained direct control in Lombardy and Venetia and indirectly over Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Romagna by supplying Austrian officers there. In the Italian as well as German states, he was able to use the policy of divide and rule up to his downfall inl848. These measures ensured that Italians and Germans were firmly under Metternich's and Austrian control.

vi) Metternich further suppressed public opinion by prohibiting the publication of parliamentary debates for public consumption. This was intended and directed at keeping the discontented public too ignorant and conservative, thereby concealing the government's weakness and avoiding or checking open criticism against his inefficiency and dictatorship.

vii) Metternich kept himself on the forefront of European politics by the use of force against rebellions whenever diplomacy and negotiations could not work. The Carbonari and the young Italy movements were all crushed militarily. The 1821 - 1822 revolutions in Naples and Spain and even those of 1830 in Parma, Modena and Tuscany all collapsed under Metternich's iron hand and the ousted kings were restored by Metternich's reserve force.

viii) Metternich further crippled opposition to his system by using fiscal policy. He over taxed his subjects to finance the activities of the intelligence network but primarily to check on their ability to finance liberal and nationalistic movements against his dictatorship. This reduced the ability of his subjects to resist his rule.

ix) Metternich forged an alliance of European monarchs against the new forces of nationalism and liberalism. At the Vienna settlement, he advocated for the restoration of legitimate rulers who became the best agents in suppressing the new forces in Europe. He thus had the support of Emperor Francis I who surrendered all powers in the empire to him. Other European leaders like Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Fredrick William III and IV of Prussia and Charles X of France were all on his side. These became his allies in their respective states.

x) Metternich also consolidated his power by maintaining close relationships between the state and the Church. He won the support of Bishops, priests and the Catholics by recognizing the Catholic Church as a state religion. In other words, he encouraged religious intolerance (except in Prussia) that gained him support from all Catholics within the empire. This was easy because most of the clergy were anti liberal and they became bulwarks against the new forces of change.

xi) Metternich ranks high in European diplomacy for the use of spying network throughout the empire (that was controlled from Vienna). His spying system was entrenched in the army, police, civil service, public places and in strategic or sensitive places like hotels, lodges, cinema halls and schools.

These unearthed all liberal and nationalistic movements against his administration. It was this espionage or spy system that uprooted the German liberal movements that would have overthrown Metternich. From 1815 - 1848, Metternich's spying system was so efficient that an Italian woman lamented that;

My daughter cannot sneeze hut Prince Metternich will know of it It's for the same reason that, one historian referred to the Austrian empire under Metternich as "a classical example of a police state".

xii) Metternich controlled education system within the empire. All professors, lecturers, principals and teachers were made to take an oath of allegiance to the Metternich system. At all levels, the education syllabus disregarded liberal subjects especially history, philosophy, psychology and literature. He went further to prohibit liberal discussions, academic associations, seminars even on subject levels.

Emperor Francis I supported his education policy and remarked that; I want not scholars hut good citizens, whoever teaches must do so according to my will and whoever keeps liberal ideas going must go or I will let him go.

xiii) Lastly, Metternich exploited the congress system to influence European affairs up to 1848. He was the chairman of the Vienna congress that mapped out strategies to suppress nationalism and liberalism in 'Europe. He later became was very active in the congress system between 1818 - 1825. Through the congress system, Metternich was able to bring all the major European powers into one thinking cup.

This made it very easy for Europe to adopt his ideas and principles as "the coachman of Europe".

ACHIEVEMENTS AND POSITIVE IMPACT OF METTERNICH IN EUROPE, 1815 -1848 (ROLE OF METTERNICH IN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS)

Between 1815 - 1848, Metternich was so successful in European affairs that this period has been described as the Metternich era and he himself as "the coachman of Europe". Metternich himself felt that the world was resting on his shoulders. To quote him;

My position has this peculiarity that all eyes, all expectations are directed to precisely that point where I happen to be; Again,

Why amongst so many million men must I be the one to think when others do not think, to act when others do not act, to write when others know not how?

After the downfall of Napoleon, the destiny of Europe passed into the hands of Metternich. He was able to achieve much in the socio, political and economic reconstruction of Europe after Napoleon I.

1. Defeat of Napoleon

Metternich made great contributions to the downfall of Napoleon I who had disorganized the whole continent of Europe. He influenced the formation of the fourth coalition with other countries like Britain, Russia and Prussia that led to the defeat of Napoleon at the battle of Leipzig and exiled him to the Island of Elba. Later when Napoleon escaped from Elba and sneaked back to Paris for 100 days, Metternich argued the Vienna congress powers to forget their differences and they mobilized a force of 800,000 men that delivered the final defeat to Napoleon at Waterloo. They finally exiled Napoleon to the rocky Island of St. Hellena where he died in 1821. This brought relative peace and stability in Europe.

2) Disintegration of Napoleonic Empire and redrawing the map of Europe

Metternich contributed to the disintegration of Napoleonic Empire and redrawing the map of Europe.

After the final defeat of Napoleon I, Metternich influenced the Vienna congressmen to reduce the boarder of France to those of 1790 and enforce permanent boarder restrictions. The huge French Empire created by Napoleon I was dismantled and nationalities like Italians and Germans were subjected to imperial rule of other powers. He influenced the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France to guard against the rise of any body from Napoleon's ruling line in France. These measures dismantled Napoleonic Empire and kept a Bonapatist out of the French throne up to 1848.

3) Restoration of the balance of power

Restoration of the balance of power in Europe was achieved by Metternich. The French revolutionary and Napoleonic activities had destroyed the balance of power in Europe. Metternich through the Vienna Settlement ensured that disputed territories were partitioned in a way that no one power emerged as the most dominant. Austria gained direct and indirect control over Italian and German states, Prussia got parts of Saxony and Poland. Russia acquired the Grand Dutchy of Warsaw, parts of Saxony and Poland. France lost the control over Italians and Germans to reduce her power since she was the most dominant in Europe.

All these restored the balance of power in Europe, which maintained relative peace and stability in Europe.

4) Reconciliation with France

Metternich realized that it would be a political asset to treat France fairly after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte I. He persuaded the allies to believe that the threat to Europe was Napoleon and not the French people. This made France to be treated fairly to the extent that she was admitted in the congress system in 1818 at Aix-Lachapalle. It made France to reconcile and forget of revenging against the allies, which consolidated peace, stability and unity in Europe.

5) The Vienna Congress of1814-1815

Metternich called and successfully chaired the Vienna congress of 1814-1815. In Sept 1814, Metternich called the Vienna congress to settle the problems caused by revolutionary France and Napoleonic activities in Europe. This created a spirit of diplomacy and cooperation in resolving issues of common concern.

Metternich manipulated the terms of the Vienna settlement of 1815 to pass stringent measures against revolutions and revolutionary movements. This created peace and stability in Europe after the downfall of Napoleon I.

6) Congress system

Metternich's ideas of European monarchs hanging together against the new forces of change led to the formation of the congress system in Europe. The congress system through congresses such as the Aix- Lachapelle of 1818 managed to settle outstanding issues amongst the major powers of Europe. Although the congress system finally collapsed by 1830, it was a good gesture at forming an international organization which provided a background for future organizations like the League of Nations and U.N.O (UN) that have maintained world peace.

7) Peace

Between 1815 - 1848, Metternich was pre-occupied with the restoration of peace in Europe. He was the chairman and pilot of the Vienna peace settlement of 1815 and a champion of the congress system that became an instrument of peace in Europe. That the post war settlement took place in Vienna, the capital of Austria portrays Metternich's seriousness with peace after Napoleon. It should be noted that although Metternich has been accused of dictatorship and oppression, it nevertheless checked the spread of assassinations, revolutionary movements and political demonstrations resulting from liberalism and nationalism. This enabled him to maintain the ramshackle Austrian empire that would have disintegrated the slightest touch of nationalism.

8) Preservation of Heterogeneous Austrian empire from disintegration

Metternich was successful in maintaining unity in the heterogeneous Austrian empire that had Germans, alians, Slavs, Magyars, Orthodox, Catholics, Protestants, Moslems and Atheists. Through his policy of expression, espionage, divide and rule, censorship of the press and force, Metternich was able to insulate the empire from the forces of nationalism and liberalism which would have broken the ramshackle empire into pieces as emperor Francis I lamented; My realm is like a warm eaten house, if one part is removed one cannot tell how much will remain. The failure of Italians and Germans by 1848 to break away and form united independent states illustrates the effectiveness of Metternich in the preservation of the heterogeneous Austrian empire from disintegration

9) Austrian imperialism in Europe

Metternich consolidated Austrian imperialism and Empire in Europe". He used the Vienna Congress particularly the principle of balance of power to expand and formalize the Austrian Empire in Europe. The empire had different nationalities like Italians, Germans, Croatians, Slovenes, Poles and Hungarians.

Although these nationalities had different historical, economic, political, social, linguistic and religious differences, Metternich was able to utilize their differences and effectively rule them through the policy of divide and rule. Thus, Metternich is credited for the creation and consolidation of Austrian Empire in Europe.

10) Alliance of European monarchs

Metternich enhanced unity and diplomatic cooperation amongst European monarchs of the time. He exaggerated the threats of liberal and nationalistic movements against conservative monarchies to bring European monarchs under his control. Consequently, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Louis XVIII and Charles X in France, Fredrick William III of Prussia, Ferdinand II and Ferdinand VII of Naples and Spain, Charles Albert of Piedmont and the many Habsburg rulers in Germany and Italy came together under Metternich's umbrella'. Such rulers joined Metternich in the struggle to fight the threatening forces of liberalism and nationalism, thus forging alliance of European monarchs.

11) Restoration and protection of legitimate rulers.

Metternich is credited for the restoration and protection of legitimate rulers in Europe in an attempt to restore the privileges of the aristocracy. He succeeded in restoring Louis)CVIII in France, Ferdinand II in Naples and Ferdinand VII in Spain. They were also restored in Italian states like Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Piedmont and Papal states. Metternich was able to use his reserve force to protect the restored kings whenever and wherever they were threatened by revolutions. This maintained the stability of political systems in Europe. Besides, the restored kings became his best agents against the forces of nationalism and liberalism.

12) Spread of revolutions and revolutionary ideas

Metternich is on record for his success against the spread of revolutions and revolutionary ideas from Vance to the rest of Europe. He once described the French revolution as a hydra with jaws open to swallow up the social order and a volcano which must be extinguished and so he embarked on suppressive measures that checked the spread of revolutions and revolutionary ideas. This explains why Austria survived the 1820's and 1830 revolutions that rocked Europe. Even where revolutions occurred,

Metternich was able to suppress them. Such was the case with Spain, Naples, Carbonari and Young Italy Movements that collapsed due to his repressive measures.

13) French Aggression

Metternich's policies in Europe checked on French aggression that had destroyed peace and tranquilly on the continent. He once remarked at the Vienna congress that; whenever France sneezes, Europe catches cold So, he influenced the Vienna peace makers to create strong barrier states all round France which were too strong to be invaded. The Austrian empire that he ruled was the strongest. He was so successful that France instead of becoming an aggressor became a victim of aggression from other powers like Prussia.

14) Revival of European economy

Remarkable improvement of European economy was witnessed during the Metternich's era. Before Metternich's era, European economy was in shambles due to the continental system and Napoleonic wars.

However, Metternich mobilized European powers to defeat Napoleon and uproot his influence in Europe.

Thereafter, he influenced the Vienna settlement to design measures that ensured peace and economic stability in Europe. For instance, he ensued that there was free navigation on important waters like the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea. These measures ended the continental system, promoted the spread of industrial revolution and revived European economy.

15) Unifications of Germany and Italy.

Metternich succeeded in keeping the Germans and the Italians disunited as the "rock to the new order (during his period). The German and Italian patriots started serious struggles for unifications as early as l820's. For instance, in Italy the Carbonari and the young Italy movements were very active in the 1820's and 1830's. The German intellectuals started as early as 1817. However, using both force and diplomacy these movements were crushed for example the Carlsbad decree of 1820's crippled German nationalism once and for all. It was not until his downfall in 1848 that German and Italian unifications started experiencing some positive developments.

However, Metternich indirectly laid foundation for the unification of Germany. He reduced the 280 German states into only 39 and created a single diet (parliament) for all the 39 states. This brought in a large measure of unity amongst the Germans and the diet became the hatching ground, for unification ideas. Nevertheless, although Metternich made some positive contributions to the unification of Germany, it was accidental since his policies were against German nationalism and unification.

NB. The Carlsbad decrees that suffocated German nationalism led to a period of political dormancy that favoured the growth of industrialization and trade in the German states. This economic prosperity led to the growth of the middle class who later spearheaded the struggle for German unification.

WEAKNESSES, FAILURES AND NEGATIVE IMPACT OF METTERNICH

Although Metternich was triumphant in controlling European affairs from 1815 - 1848, he has been criticized by Ketelbey on the grounds that he was an intriguer and an opportunist. Tsar Alexander1 called him a liar, while liberals and democrats then and since have accused him of obscurantism, reactionariness and hostility to the desires and aspirations of the people. His weaknesses, failures and negative influence were as follows:-

1. Restoration and maintenance of legitimate rulers

Failure to restore all the legitimate rulers who were overthrown by the French revolutionary changes and Napoleon was a fundamental weakness of Metternich. For example, those of Belgium, Finland and Denmark never regained their thrones. Those who were restored were the worst rulers Europe ever had. The revolts and political instability provoked by these rulers notably in Spain and France that disorganized Europe can therefore be blamed on Metternich's principle of legitimacy.

2. Promotion of Austrian imperialism, conservatism and autocratism

Promotion of Austrian imperialism, conservatism and autocratism was a negative impact of Metternich in Europe. Metternich consolidated Austrian imperialism and conservatism in Europe through repressive measures against nationalism. He remarked; That which I wished in 1831,1 wished in 1813 and in all the period between. Nationalities within the Austrian Empire suffered lack of political liberties, oppression, imprisonment, exile and press censorship amongst others. The brutal suppression of revolts like those of 1830 in Italian states and Poland led to death of people in thousands. Indeed, Metternich ranks high as one of the worst dictators that Europe has ever hosted. There is a general agreement that Metternich surpassed Napoleon I in dictatorship. He over dwelt on rigidly static conservative policies that suffocated liberalism and nationalism in Europe.

3. Exploitation and oppression

Economically, Metternich over exploited subjects within the Austrian Empire. He used forced

conscription into the army to raise a big force to consolidate his exploitative and oppressive rule in Europe. He also embarked on excessive taxation to raise money to meet the cost of administration and deny his subjects excess resources that could be used to resist his mle. Such measures led to financial crisis, poverty, misery, famine, starvation and poor standard of living. These deplorable economic conditions contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions that prompted the downfall of Metternich.

4. Failure of press censorship

Within Austria itself, strict censorship of the press was not strict in the strictest sense. Liberal books, journals and newspapers reached university professors, students and lectures in great numbers. These were tactfully coordinated from other countries and universities without interception by the censor official. Metternich acknowledged this failure when he said; although I have ruled Europe, I have never governed Austria,' justifying that his achievement in Europe was a sharp contrast to his failure in Austria.

5. Suffocation of German and Italian unifications

Historians have blamed Metternich for blocking the unification's of Italy and Germany during his reign. He arrested tortured, imprisoned and exiled Italian and German nationalists. The Carlsbad decree destroyed German nationalism and it could not triumph until after Metternich's downfall in 1848. One must note that although Metternich laid foundations for Italian and German unifications, it was accidental since they were the reverse of his policy. Thus Metternich is hereby blamed for blocking and frustrating German unification during his era.

6. The spread of revolutions and revolutionary ideas in Europe.

Metternich made a fruitless attempt to prevent the spread of revolutions and revolutionary ideas in Europe. Although Metternich knew the empire's illness through his spy network, he is accused of treating the effects than the causes of the disease. No wonder that Europe experienced periodic revolutions in 1820's, 1830's and 1848. Metternich himself knew that he was fighting a losing battle.

He once confessed;

I have come into the world either too early or too late. Earlier I should have enjoyed the age, later I should have helped to reconstruct it. Today I have to give my life to propping up moldering institutions.

Metternich himself was ejected out of European politics by a revolution in Vienna on 15"^ March 1848 that sent him to exile in England.

7. Education and academic freedom

Metternich's Education system was an insult to people's intelligence and made him very unpopular amongst intellectuals. He promoted illiteracy in the Habsburg Empire through strict control of Education. Metternich forced all teachers, lecturers and professors to swear an oath of allegiance to him, banned the teaching of revolution subjects and students, organizations and instituted a spy network that interfered with academic freedom. These provoked resistance and no wander that the revolution that finally sealed off his career was organized by Austrian university professors, lectures and students in 1848.

8. Religious intolerance

In spite of the cry for religious freedom, Metternich re-imposed religious intolerance in the fashion of the ancient regime. He restored the privileges of the clergy and made Catholicism a state religion and yet the Austrian empire was multi-religious with other religions like Protestantism, Orthodoxy and Islam. All his appointments in public offices favoured the Catholics at the expense of other religious denominations.

9. Weak administrative system

Metternich failed to influence Emperor Francis I to execute administrative reforms. There was absence of a properly centralized administrative system to hold the different races within the empire together.

The different nationalities were therefore semi autonomous, which made it impossible to stop the spread of revolutions and revolutionary ideas. Above all, Metternich over dwelt on European politics at the expense of socio-economic conditions of the masses. This explains why by 1848 the empire was in acute financial crisis and was referred to as a laughing stock of Europe.

10. Weakness and collapse of the congress system.

Although Metternich is credited as the father of the congress system, he is blamed for killing his own 'child'. His selfish interests and conservative policies alienated liberal monarchies like i.e. Britain, France, Belgium and Greece from the congress system. These powers were against Metternich's manipulation of the congress system to restore and protect the old order of conservatism. Above all, there was no written agreement and protocol that could have bonded the congress powers together and no wonder that the system collapsed by 1830.

11. Failure to influence the post 1820events and leadership

Metternich's idea of putting Europe into the same thinking cup was a failure from 1820's. He failed to prevent Russian imperialism in the Balkans, as was the case with the Greek war of revolt 1821 - 1831.

He even failed to restrain Britain from assisting liberal movement like the Belgium revolution of 1830 and the Greek revolt. He also lost control over Prussia after Fredrick William IV's rise to power in 1840. Unlike his predecessor (William III), William IV was an enlightened despot whom Metternich could not easily influence. Therefore, Metternich was not all that a "coachman of Europe." Successive developments and leadership proved a challenge beyond his skills.

12. Shift of European balance of power from Vienna to London

Lastly, Metternich's attempt in maintaining the balance of power in favour of Austria and making

Vienna the nucleus (center) of European diplomacy failed in the long run from 1830, European diplomacy shitted from Vienna to London. For instance, the Greek war of revolt was settled by the London treaty of 1830, the Belgium independence was settled by the 1830 and 1839 London treaties. It was even the 1840 and 1841 London conferences that settled the Syrian question. The fact that European diplomacy shifted from Vienna to London is a clear testimony by Metternich’s failure in directing or controlling European affairs.

NB. Metternich has been accused of obscurantism conservatism and hostility to the desires and aspirations of the people but this to some extent is a misjudgment. This is because he had correctly studied the political barometer of the time and had accurately seen how liberalism and nationalism could destabilize mankind. It was the aggressive German nationalism, which Metternich had imprisoned that led to the 1864 war between Denmark and Prussia, 1866 Austro-Prussian war and the Franco Prussian war of 1870 - 1871 that destroyed the European balance of power. It was even the same aggressive German nationalism that led not only Europe but the whole world into the first and second world wars. It's against such a background that one should assess Metternich's achievements and failures in Europe.

REASONS WHY METTERNICH DOMNATED EUROPEAN POLITICS FROM 1815 - 1848

Metternich was the most famous statesman produced by Austria in the 19^^ century. He was so successful in influencing European affairs that this period is often referred to as the "Metternich's age.' A number of reasons explain why Metternich was successful in re-organizing Europe after the downfall of Napoleon I.

He was blessed with rare qualities that enabled him to survive on the forefront of European politics up to 1848. On one hand, he had a cool head and was humane yet on the other hand he was ruthless, vigilant and remorseless. These explain why he relied more on diplomacy other than force in dealing with the new forces of change. For instance the carbonari, young Italy movement and German intellectual movements were suppressed more due to Metternich's diplomatic skills than force.

However, where diplomacy could not work he was not slow at using force e.g. Naples in 1821.

2. Metternich was thoroughly educated, had traveled widely and was therefore a cosmopolitan aristocrat of the 19^th century. He was educated at the universities of Strasbourg and Mainz. He studied diplomacy and administration but was equally interested in history, Astronomy, science and linguistics. It is this diplomatic skill which he attained through his education that became the most useful weapon in fighting .the forces of liberalism and Nationalism hence an insight as to why he succeeded.

3. Metternich's linguistic ability made him to be more knowledgeable than anyone else about European affairs. He spoke and wrote in nearly all-European languages. He boasted; It*s my habit to write to Paris in French, to London in English, to St. Petersburg in Russian and to Berlin in German. Indeed throughout European congresses, Metternich became an interpreter for European statesmen and effected decisions without interpretation. This was a fundamental factor that helped him to be aware of events in Europe and consolidate his influence in Europe up to-1848.

4. Metternich traveled widely and had diplomatic experiences that enabled him to be the coachman of European affairs. He was an Austrian Ambassador to Dresden, Paris and Berlin. These made him to be more acquainted with the diplomatic cobwebs of Europe. Although Austria was in alliance with Napoleon through marriage (Napoleon married the Austrian princes Marie Louse in 1810 after divorcing Josephine), his diplomatic insight helped him to withdraw Austria, from Napoleon and consequently Austria joined the allied powers. This gave Austria a high position in the Vienna settlement for which she was given the leadership under Metternich’s chairmanship.

5. Metternich's conservative views and policies greatly tallied with those of European aristocrats who gave him overwhelming support. Tsar Alexander I of Russia openly confessed before Metternich that; deplore all that I said and did between 1815 - 1818. I regret the time lost ...you have correctly judged the conditions of things. Tell me what you want and what you want of me and I will do it.

Others like the Bourbons in France, Fredrick William of Prussia, Ferdinand II and Ferdinand VII of Naples and Spain, Charles Albert of Piedmont and the many Habsburg rulers in Germany and Italy were all behind Metternich and his system in Europe. These rulers became Metternich's agents in the struggle against liberalism and Nationalism and that is why he succeeded.

6. Metternich also had strong official support from his emperor Francis I of Austria who was equally conservative and despotic. It's Emperor Francis I who promoted him and supported his politics and programs. He gave him freedom to "govern and change nothing". Since most civil servants, army commanders and government officials were appointed or were approved by the emperor, it was not a surprise that they were dedicated (loyal) anti-liberal officers who implemented Metternich's orders.

7. Metternich was also supported by the clergy and the nobles because he was the champion of aristocratic privileges and also because of his policy of "peace and no change". This gained him the support of the pope and a great majority of the conservative Catholics and nobles all over Europe.

Consequently, the Catholic Church was instrumental in censoring the press, implementing conservative policies in schools and influencing state officials and their subjects in favour of Metternich.

8. Besides, the few liberal countries such as France and Britain that could have opposed Metternich's conservative policies were trapped by internal problems. In France, Louis Philippe was faced by internal opposition from various political factions and his concern was a peaceful foreign policy.

Britain was occupied with problems brought by industrial revolution and Russia was tied by Polish rebels. Metternich therefore had no one to restrain him in the struggle to restore the old order of Europe hence a reason for his success.

9. The liberal and Nationalistic movements that were the greatest threat to Metternich lacked co operation and were disorganized. In Italy, the Carbonari Movement was dominated by charcoal burners whose activities were mostly confined to the bush where they burnt charcoal. The young Italy movement that succeeded it under Mazzini ignored the role of kings in the struggle against

Metternich. This earned the movement opposition from those who thought the Italian kings had a great role to play. In Germany, the opposition to Metternich was confined to a few large towns and intellectuals in universities who wrongly thought that Metternich could be ousted using parliamentary debates and resolutions. These weaknesses made it very easy for Metternich to suppress the anti Austrian movements in Italy and Germany up to 1848.

10. The nature and composition of the Austrian Empire favoured Metternich's policies. It was a hybrid of nationalities each with different interest, culture, religion and aspirations. Consequently, they lacked unity and were badly fragmented. This favoured Metternich's policy of divide and rule. For instance, the south German states were Catholics and liberal while the North German states were Protestants and conservative. Yet Prussia that was the most powerful of the German states was too jealous to sacrifice her relative prosperity for the sake of a united Germany (without Metternich). Metternich was therefore able to successfully maneuver and intervene in the internal affairs of the various states within the empire and very often some of them allied with him against their strong enemies. This boosted Metternich's ability to control European affairs up to 1848.

11. Metternich's system also survived in Europe due to lack of common language and easy mobility between his subjects. For example, the Italians in Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, Poles in Galicia, Czechs in Slovenia remained dissatisfied in their respective areas due to language barrier yet Metternich himself was a linguist. Metternich therefore divided and mled them according to their different languages up to his downfall in 1848.

12. Metternich was able to maintain his system because the ramshackle empire lacked a highly inspired nationalistic middle class to oppose him. The population was mainly peasants who were tied to the land that was not theirs (feudalism) and so they were controlled by their landlords. The landlords hated and feared revolutions. To quote Raynor; Resistance to tyranny generally comes from people who are just well off enough to realize that it is within their power to win for themselves further prosperity and happiness.

Within the empire this class was limited to those whose interest Metternich was defending. Thus, the peasants maintained a lukewarm position in spite of their burdens since the middle class who could have led them against Metternich were in his pockets.

13. Metternich exploited events in Europe after 1815 to rally support for his system. The demonstrations, revolts and assassinations between 1817 and 1820 helped him to convert many European rulers to his side. His real chance was in 1819 and 1820. In 1819, a German university student called Karl sand assassinated professor Kotzbue, a Russian journalist employed by Metternich. In 1820, Duke de-Berry the son of Charles x was murdered in France by a Bonapartist although some sources stress a republican. In the same year (1820), Tsar Alexander I of Russia discovered an assassination plot on his life. These liberal acts helped Metternich to get the Bourbons on his side and to convert Tsar Alexander from his liberal tendencies to his despotism. At the congress of Troppau, he confessed to Metternich that;

Today I deplore all that I said and did between 1815 and 1818 …you have correctly judged the

conditions of things. Tell me what you want and what you want of me, and I will do it.

He used such threats to convince the kings of Europe to support him against liberalism and nationalism. Therefore, Metternich's success in European politics was determined by circumstances in Europe of his time.

14. The existence of the Vienna settlement and the congress system made great contributions to the success of Metternich in European affairs. The Vienna settlement formalized the area composing the Austrian empire and legalized Metternich and Austrian intervention in the internal affairs of such states. The Vienna settlement and the congress system were manipulated by Metternich to implement his policies and programs. The congress system also brought unity amongst the great powers of Europe which was an added advantage to Metternich. For example, the Troppau congress of 1820 bonded Austria, Russia and Prussia to intervene and suppress revolutions in any part of Europe. It was such endorsed policy that empowered Metternich to suppress the Italian revolts of 1820, 1821 and 1830 respectively.

THE DOWNFALL OF METTERNICH AND COLLAPSE OF THEMETTERNICH SYSTEM

Undoubtedly, Metternich dominated European politics between 1815 - 1848 but failed to save Austria and his political career from the revolution of1848. He misjudged the circumstances of the time and failed to realize that the 1840's were quite different from 1815. As professor Alison puts it;

For a tired and timid generation, he was a necessary man, and it was his misfortune that he survived his usefulness and failed to recognize that while he himself was growing old and feeble, the world was renewing its youth.

These youths were of a new generation who did not understand why Metternich wanted to maintain the status quo and remain a rock to changes. They did not know (since they did not experience) the dangers of the French revolution and Napoleon. All they wanted was freedom and self-determination and that is why they rose against Metternich.

Historians have accused Metternich for being rigidly static and too insensitive to the demands of the age.

He is guilty of treating the effects or ends than the causes of the problem. Consequently, he failed to adjust to the growing demands of the time i.e. nationalism and liberalism. He was even conscious that he was playing a losing game when he regretted that he was either born too late or too early and that he had to spend his life propping up rotten institutions. Indeed, the very forces that Metternich was suppressing up rooted him from Vienna to exile. Before leaving Vienna, he said that he was an old physician and he knew very well the difference between a curable and non-curable disease and that his disease was fatal (deadly).

Metternich's failure/downfall is attributed to a number of factors.

1. The series of successful revolutions in France prior to 1848 encouraged the Austrians to rise against Metternich leading to his downfall. The French revolution of 1789 destroyed the Bourbon monarchy and instituted a republican government. Again in 1830, there were successful revolutions in France and Belgium and in 1848 against Louis Philippe. These successes signaled to the Italians, Germans and Austrians that the old order of despotism could be defeated which gave them morale to fight and overthrow Metternich.

2. The death and downfall of close political associates and the rise of new political figures was a heavy blow to Metternich. Emperor Francis 1 who co-operated with Metternich was replaced in 1835 by Ferdinand who never followed Metternich's advice. Tsar Alexander 1 of Russia was replaced by Nicholas I in 1825 who was too aggressive and uncompromising. Fredrick William III of Prussia died in 1840 and was succeeded by Fredrick William IV who was humane, religious and anxious to avoid unnecessary persecutions. George Canning who replaced Castlereagh in 1821 followed the policy of each nation for its self and God for everybody. Other new figures that were against the old order included Von Bismarck in Prussia, Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II in Piedmont. These encouraged the growth of liberalism, which forced Metternich out of European politics in 1848.

3. In Italy, the emergence of a liberal Pope Puis ix encouraged liberalism throughout the Catholic states.

More importantly although the carbonari and young Italy movements failed, they nevertheless inspired the spirit of nationalism through their philosophy of unity and independence. This in what made the Italians to be the first to rise against Metternich in January 1848 that spread to other states leading to the downfall of Metternich.

The Austrian Empire and. Metternich were brainchildren of the Vienna settlement. When the congress system collapsed by 1830, there was no force to maintain the Vienna settlement. There was therefore no European alliance to suppress the rights of the smaller states. When the 1848 revolutions broke out, European countries were left without a concerted effort that could have saved Metternich from the revolution of 1848.

5. Within Austria, Metternich failed to effectively censor the press. Liberal books, publications, journals and newspapers reached students and lecturers in great numbers. Indeed the revolution that ousted him from Vienna was started by university students, lecturers and professors who were partly inspired by external influence through such newspapers, journals and liberal books.

6. 1840's were marked by economic progress in most states. There was rapid growth of industrialization and trade which led to the growth of a strong middle class. In Germany, the formation of the Zollverein or customs union led by Prussia increased industrial and economic developments. The new middle class was ready to challenge Metternich's conservative policies. Moreover, the Zollverein had strengthened nationalism amongst the Germans by bringing the German states together.

7. The Austrian empire was too extensive (large) to be administered effectively by Metternich from a central place. It had up to 13 different races, which explains why he failed to establish a properly centralized administration. Different nationalities managed their own affairs and it became difficult to check the spread of liberalism and nationalism. This climaxed into the revolution of 1848 through which Metternich disappeared from the political landscape of Europe.

8. The role of foreign powers and mercenaries were influential in the downfall of Metternich. Britain hated Austria's domination of the Germans and Italians. Napoleon was a former Carbonari who assisted Italians and Germans against Metternich. Several Carbonari fighters were given asylum in France, Britain and America. This helped the various subject within the empire to rebel against Metternich leading to his downfall.

9. Metternich was a fanatical dictator worst than Napoleon Bonaparte. He is accused of being a reactionary and ruthless ruler. His army was too strict and terrorized his subjects. Both him and his spies also became instruments of violence and plunder (loot). This caused a lot of protests in Italy, Germany and Austria climaxing in the 1848 revolutions which destroyed his political career.

10. Metternich over dwelt on politics at the expense of the other sectors of the economy. This made the Austrian empire economically and industrially backward in Europe. No wonder that by 1848, it had run bankrupt with acute problems like unemployment, poor standard of living, famine etc. These provoked the Masses to rise against him and his system.

11. The immediate cause of Metternich's downfall was natural calamities. In 1847, the empire was hit by winter that destroyed potatoes mid grains. Consequently, there was large-scale famine and epidemic diseases like cholera and dysentery. This forced the masses to move from the countryside to Vienna where they became revolutionary gangsters like that of Paris in 1789. These provided ready manpower for the revolution of 1848, which led to the downfall of Metternich.