GENERAL CAUSES OF THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE:
1. The Vienna settlement /Nationalism
The Vienna settlement laid foundation for the outbreak of the
1848 Revolutions, most especially in the Austrian Empire. The settlement
undermined the principle of nationalism and imposed foreign control over
smaller states. For example, Austrian control and influence was imposed on the
Germans, Italians and Hungarians. The unifications of Italy and Germany that
climaxed into the 1848 revolutions in these states were aimed at destroying
Austria's control, which was imposed by the Vienna settlement.
The Hungarian revolution led by Louis Kossuth was also provoked
by the need to eliminate Austrian's influence, which was also consolidated by
the Vienna settlement. To this extent, one can assert that nationalism was
responsible for the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe.
2. Liberalism
Liberalism was a force to reckon with that caused the 1848
revolutions in Europe. In Austria, Hungary, France, German and Italian states,
the King's were conservative, rigid and inflexible to liberal desires of the
people. There was a popular demand for political liberties like freedom of
speech, association and universal suffrage. There was also a popular agitation
for a liberal constitution that would guarantee equality, expanded franchise,
fair taxation system, fair wage policy etc. The inability of conservative kings
to provide the above liberal demands explains why the liberals mobilized the
masses for the revolution.
3. Metternich system
Metternich system was influential in causing the revolutions in
Austria, Hungary, Germany and Italian states. In these states, Metternich
consolidated his influence through unpopular policy of divide and rule, force,
spy net work system, imprisonment and exile of political opponents. By 1848,
these policies had made Metternich very unpopular in Europe. This is why when
the Italians rose against the system in Jan 1848; it inspired the Austrians,
Hungarians and Germans to take the challenge and revolt as well.
4. The Downfall of Metternich
The downfall of Metternich weakened his system and provided a
line of weakness for the explosion of the 1848 Revolutions in Europe.
Metternich had maintained tight control over the Italians, Germans, Austrians
and Hungarians through force and diplomacy. These measures effectively
suppressed the forces of liberalism and nationalism. However, his downfall and
exile in March 1848 became a source of hope and encouragement to the masses who
were scared of revolting against him. It should be emphasized that the news of
Metternich's downfall is what inspired the Hungarians, Germans, Slavs and
Magyar's to rise up and demand for their freedom.
5. The downfall of the congress system
The collapse of the congress system left a vacuum tor the
explosion of the 1848 revolutions. The system had provided a spirit of
togetherness in defending the Vienna settlement, which was against liberalism
and nationalism. However, the collapse of the congress system by 1830 left a
divided Europe that could not collectively defend the Vienna settlement. This
inspired the liberals and nationalists to start challenging the Vienna
settlement, which climaxed into the revolutions in Hungary, German and Italian
states.
6. French revolutionary ideas and the success of previous
revolutions in Europe
The spread of French revolutionary ideas and the success of
previous revolutions in Europe also account for the outbreak of the 1848
revolutions in Europe. The success of the Belgian revolution of 1830 against the
Vienna settlement provided a practical example of how unity and determination
could overturn the arrangements of Vienna. The success of the 1848 revolution
in France provided yet another example of how freedom could be attained. All
these provided a chain reaction for the outbreak of several other revolutions
such as in Austria, Hungary and German states. This explains why some
historians have asserted that whenever France sneezes, Europe catches cold and
others have affirmed that whenever France coughs, Europe catches fire.
7. Effects of Bad weather and Economic hardship
The devastating impact of the 1847 - 1848 bad weather hit the
agricultural states of east and central Europe, which made the outbreak of the
revolutions inevitable. There were heavy rains, storms, frost and freezing of
land to the extent that exchange of goods and services were bought to a
standstill.
Besides, there were corruption and embezzlement of funds, which
were unchecked by the existing governments. All these led to inflation, unemployment,
poverty, famine, starvation and rural urban migration. It was these desperate
conditions which the existing governments failed to handle that led to hostile
groupings of jobless and hungry mobs on major streets. The jobless, hungry and
frustrated mobs escalated lawlessness and violence, which degenerated in to the
1848 Revolutions.
NB: The impact of bad weather was more devastating to agrarian
/ agricultural economies like
Austrian empire and France. This party explains why
industrialized nations like Britain and Belgium survived the waves of the
revolution.
8. Impact of epidemic diseases
The outbreak and spread of epidemic diseases in east and
central Europe was also responsible for the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.
Diseases like cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis and influenza were more pronounced
in the urban centers where there was a lot of congestion. Crop and animal
diseases were also very active in the rural areas. These diseases led to high
death rate, poor harvest, famine, psychological and physical effects on the
people. People blamed their kings for failing to provide practical solutions to
these problems and consequently revolted.
9. Population Explosion (Demographic Aspect)
The 1848 revolutions were also caused by population explosion.
For instance, from 1840 to1848, the population of Europe increased from 187
million to 266 million. These excess populations put a great strain on
resources and means of survival especially food. Consequently, there were
serious problems of famine, poverty, starvation, unemployment, congestion and
inflation, which became fertile grounds for the explosion and spread of
revolutions. The government's failure to address these problems dragged the
masses to take a revolutionary stand. It should be noted that population
pressure led to rural - urban migration and congestion in the urban centers,
for example, the population of Berlin increased from about 170.000 in 1800 to
over 440.000 by 1848. These provided the revolutionary mobs that made the
outbreak of the revolutions inevitable.
10. Negative impact of industrial revolution
The negative consequences of industrial revolution played its
role in the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. Industrial revolution
started from Britain in 1760's and by 1848 it had spread to East and Central
Europe. Industries displaced human labour and rendered many people jobless. The
few who were employed suffered long hours of work (14-16 hours a day),
congestion and severe punishments. Accommodation, sanitation and working conditions
were all poor. Indeed, conditions of industrial workers were so grim (very
serious / deplorable) that they were expected to die sooner than agricultural
workers. Governments went ahead and labeled ground for capitalists to continue
exploiting workers. All these made the workers and the unemployed to engage in
constant strikes and demonstrations, which climaxed into the 1848 Revolutions.
11. Influence of socialism
The 1848 revolutions were also caused by the growing influence
of socialism. The disciples i.e. followers of Karl Marx and his socialist
ideas, took advantage of socio-economic problems like unemployment,
exploitation of workers and peasants to undermine capitalism and strengthen
socialism. Socialists like Lamartine and Louis Blanc in France decampaigned
their governments using such problems and demanded for a change of government.
This created more awareness and a revolutionary mood in the minds of the
people. It should be noted that the socialists played a leading role in
mobilizing the workers and the unemployed to participate in the 1848
revolutions.
12. Segregative social class system
The segregative social class system cannot be underrated in the
outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. Apart from France, the social,
political and economic system in the Austrian empire was dominated by the
clergy and nobles against the peasants and the middle class. The clergy and
nobles monopolized key positions in the civil service, church and the army.
Besides, these aristocrats (clergy and nobles) were very arrogant when dealing
with the peasants and the middle class. The peasants and the middle class
joined the revolutions as the only way to end aristocratic arrogance and
segregation.
13. The Role of Revolutionary leaders/Intellectuals
The rise and role of revolutionary leaders was influential in
the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.
Patriotic and nationalistic leaders like Louis Kossuth of
Hungary, Lamartine and Louis Blanc of
France, Mazzini and Cavour of Italy and Stephan
Baron of Prussia played a leading role in the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions
in their states. They undermined their governments by criticizing their
weaknesses which ploughed ground for the revolutions. It should be stressed
that these leaders played a crucial role in mobilizing and leading the masses
in the 1848 revolutions
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