REASONS FOR THE DELAY OF ITALY UN UNIFICATION/OBSTACLES TO ITALIAN UNIFICATION:

REASONS FOR THE DELAY OF ITALY UN UNIFICATION/OBSTACLES TO ITALIAN UNIFICATION:

1) THE METTERNICH SYSTEM:

Metternich and his system were stumbling blocks to the Italian unification by 1848. Metternich used the policy of divide and rule to keep the Italians divided and disunited. He also instituted one of the most efficient spy networks that exposed the activities of Italian nationalists. Above all, Metternich used force to suppress Italian freedom fighters. All these explain why the unification attempts of 1821, 1830 and 1848 failed to win any success in the unification process. The fact that the Italians succeeded after the downfall of Metternich is a clear testimony that he had been a formidable obstacle in the unification of Italy.

2) THE VIENNA SETTLEMENT

The 1815 Vienna Settlement and the Congress System that followed were serious setbacks to the Italian unification process. They hindered the unification in 3 ways; In the first place, the peacemakers re-partitioned Italy into 12 smaller states out of the 3 forged by Napoleon I. This made it more difficult to unify the states than it would have been with only 3 states. Secondly, the settlement gave Austria direct control over Lombardy and Venetia and indirect control over the rest of the Italian states. This made it illegal for any other power to assist the Italians in the unification process. On the other hand, it also legalized Austria's intervention against Italian unification process and that was why she suppressed all unification movements without fear.

3) THE CONGRESS SYSTEM:

Besides, the Congress System that was to maintain the Vienna Settlement brought a spirit of togetherness against any revolutionary and unification movement. The Troppau Protocol of 1820 bonded Austria, Prussia, Russia and France to suppress liberal and nationalistic movements in

Europe. It's this spirit that Austria used to crush the carbonari movements of 1820-1822 in Naples, Sicily and Piedmont. It's the same spirit that was used by France to suppress the pro-unification movements of 1821 in Spain and 1848 in Rome. These disorganized and paralyzed the activities of the Carbonari and Young Italy Movement, hence accounting for the delay in the unification of Italy by 1850.

4) LACK OF A STRONG MIDDLE CLASS

Lack of a strong and revolutionary middleclass also hindered Italian unification struggle by 1850.

The middle class that existed in Italy were supporters of Austria and Metternich system of conservatism. This was because Metternich was defending their privileges against revolutionary movements by the Carbonari and later Young Italy Movement. They were the landlords who controlled the peasants through the practice of feudalism. This denied Italians of a strong pro unification leaders and mass support that could have achieved a successful unification by 1850.

5) ILLITERACY

The high rate of illiteracy and ignorance amongst the Italians also contributed to the failure of unification movement by 1850. Most Italians especially in the rural areas were unable to read and write. For instance over 90% of Italians in the rural areas were illiterate. They could not properly understand the advantages of an independent and united Italy in comparison to a divided Italy under Austrian rule. Illiteracy also hindered effective mobilisation and circulation of unification ideas across the various Italian states, hence delaying the unification process.

6) WEAKNESSES OF ITALIAN NATIONALISTIC MOVEMENTS

The weaknesses of Italian pro- unification movements were also responsible for the failure of the struggle by 1850. The Carbonari movement was dominated by charcoal burners whose political influence was confined to the bush where they burnt charcoal. The Young Italy Movement that succeeded the Carbonary (from 1833) was monopolized by a few intellectuals and idealists who did not have a comprehensive political program to achieve Italian unit\'. They ignored the role of Italian Kings and earned opposition from those who believed that not all kings were against the unification. They also over concentrated on theoretical approach in form of debates and discussions at the expense of raising a strong army to fight Austria out of Italian states. These weaknesses favoured Austrian dominance and enabled her to easily suppress pro-unification movements like those of 1830 and 1848.

7) LACK OF A LEADING STATE

Lack of a model state to lead the rest of Italian states also failed the struggle by 1850. None of the Italian states emerged to rally others behind her to achieve national unity. Each of the states and their kings believed in their own struggle for independence from Austria rather than fighting for a united Italy. This explains why Italian unification struggle was led from foreign countries like France, Britain and Switzerland after the exile of nationalists like Garibaldi and Mazzinni. Thus, lack of a model state denied Italian nationalists of an internal base to mobilize Italians for effective unification by 1850. The fact that Italian unification easily succeeded with the emergence of Piedmont as a leading state froml850's is a testimony that absence of a leading state was a serious problem that had hindered the struggle.

8) DISUNITY AND IDEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES:

Ideological difference was a great hindrance to Italian unification. The Italians were divided over the strategy to achieve a united Italy. Mazzini was against foreign assistance and Italian Kings and wanted a republican government led by an elected King; Abbey Gipberty wanted a Federal

Government led by the Pope from Rome and Mazzimo-de-Azeglio wanted a united Italy led by Charles Albert of Piedmont (Sardinia). This division amongst the Italians explains why the Italians failed to organize a co-ordinated movement but isolated risings, which were crushed by Austria one at a time.

NB: Mazzini's negative attitude towards foreign assistance explains why no foreign power considered granting foreign assistance to Italians against Austria yet from another angle,

Mazzini's republican spirit bullied the Italian Kings from supporting the unification. It’s because republicanism was a big threat to their power. This is why Charles Albert hesitated and gave half-hearted support to the unification, which doomed it to failure in 1848.

9) ECONOMIC BACKWARDNESS:

Economic backwardness of the Italian states impeded the unification progress. There was no properly developed transport and communication network for effective mobilisation and the flow of unification ideas. The richest states of Lombardy and Venetia were under Austria and this left the unification to the economically poorer states of the south. Unfortunately, these poor states could not finance a protracted unification program that needed a modernized army and well developed transport and communication network. This explains why there was poor mobilisation, co-ordination and infrastructure that frustrated Italian unification.

10) THE STRENGTH OF THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE:

By 1848, the Austrian empire was the strongest in Europe. It was an amalgam (combination) of races like the Italians, Germans, Magyars, Austrians and Hungarians. Austria therefore had a very high population and that is why she had a big army that was deployed against Italian nationalists.

From economic point of view, the empire had enough resources that was due to the taxes collected from the different races within the empire. These resources were useful in financing intelligence network, training the army and morale boosting the army that made them to easily suppress all unification movements by 1850. The strength of the Austrian empire can be manifested by the fact that even after the fall of Metternich in 1848, it still took about 10years for the Italian nationalists to make practical achievements.

11) MILITARY WEAKNESS:

Military weakness was a serious obstacle to Italian unification. For the Italians to succeed, they needed a strong, well equipped, trained and armed army. Unfortunately, the Italian freedom fighters resorted to secret movements (Carbonari) that were ill equipped and ill trained. This couldn't therefore challenge the Austrian army that was well organized, highly trained, equipped led by mighty and experienced commanders like General Windischgratz, Haynau, Jellacio and Radetsky. This is why Italian struggles of 1820-21, 1830 and 1848 failed because they were violently quelled down by mighty anti-revolutionary forces (Austrian soldiers).

12) LACK OF FOREIGN ASSISTANCE:

Lack of foreign assistance was a cardinal factor that delayed the unification of Italy. By 1850,

European powers (most of them monarchs) were not ready to assist Italians against the Austrian monarchy. France under Louis Philippe had a non-interventionist foreign policy; Russia and

Prussia had a strong solidarity and alliance with Austria; Britain maintained her isolationist policy in Europe. All these left the Italians isolated without any military or moral assistance. This was exploited by Austria to suppress the Italian unification movements and dominate her up to 1858.

That the unification of Italy succeeded only after acquisition of foreign assistance from 1859 is clear evidence that lack of it was indeed not a minor obstacle by 1858.

13 FRENCH INTERVENTIONS, 1849:

Napoleon's Ill's intervention in Rome in 1849 was a final blockade in the unification of Italy.

Garibaldi and Mazzini had overthrown the Pope and established a Roman Republic in Rome.

However, Napoleon III sent French soldiers led by General Oudinot and restored the Pope in

Rome. This denied the Italians of a base to mobilize themselves and made them vulnerable to further defeats. This is why the Austrian troops easily re-occupied Venice and Nice. Worst of all,

French soldiers remained in Rome guarding the Pope up to 187U. This is what made Garibaldi's attempt to liberate Rome a failure not until 1870 when the Franco-Prussian war conditioned Napoleon HI to withdraw the French troops.

14) NADEQUATE POLITICISATION AND POOR MOBILISATION OF THE MASSES:

By 1850, the majority of Italians were still ignorant about the advantages of a united Italy.

Mazzini's politicization program had failed to significantly politicize the peasants because they were not able to read and write (illiterate). This also made the unification struggle to be confined to urban areas and the rural dwellers played a "passive role". Hence, by 1850 the unification of Italy was confined to a few urban centers and intellectuals who were easily defeated by Austria.

15) LACK OF CAPABLE AND RELIABLE LEADERSHIP

The unification of Italy was also delayed by lack of capable and reliable leadership up to 1850.

The Carbonari was merely a group of disorganized charcoal burners without a political agenda and organized leadership. They operated in isolated groups without proper co-ordination and became a victim of Metternich's policy of divide and rule. Mazzini, the leader of the Young Italy Movement operated from exile and was against foreign assistance plus the Italian Kings. Charles Albert of Piedmont was anti-unification and merely wanted to expand his Kingdom and this is why he hesitated to attack Austria in 1848. Pope Gregory XVI was conservative and a self confessed supporter of Metternich and Austria. Q Although the Italians had hopes in the liberal Pope Pius IX (who replaced Pope Gregory in 1846), he nevertheless betrayed them in 1848, when he defected and was restored to Rome by Napoleon III. These acts of betrzyals and un necessary activities of the Italian leaders made it impossible to achieve a successful unification by 1850.

16) RELIGION:

The role of religion was yet another hindrance that delayed Italian unification. Most Italians were

Catholics and the Papal States were ruled by the Pope who was a political as well as a spiritual leader. Unfortunately most Popes were conservative, anti- liberal and strong allies of Austria as a mother catholic state. The Popes therefore helped to strengthen Austria s control over Italians and frustrated all attempts towards unification. In fact, the Italian unification was taken as a move against the Pope and was condemned by the Catholics in Italy and Europe. It also attracted the intervention of catholic powers like France that forcefully restored the Pope in 1849 and marked the failure of the 1848 unification attempt. It has to be re-emphasized that the Pope's defection in the 1848-49 revolutions was due to religious consideration. This was because the revolution was against Austria that was a strong Catholic power and hence his ally.

17) LACK OF A COMMON LANGUAGE:

The absence of a national language also delayed the unification of Italy. Italian as a language was for the intellectuals. Latin was a medium of communication in schools, universities and churches.

In states like Piedmont, Naples and Sicily, the Italian language was unknown. They instead used French or local languages. The absence of a national language made it extremely difficult for Italian nationalists to politicize and mobilize the Italians for a successful unification by 1850.

18) GEOGRAPHICAL NATURE OF THE ITALIAN STATES:

Topography became yet another geographical hindrance to Italian unification. The Italians states were scattered with a rugged landscape that became an obstacle to mobilization. Most parts of Italy were mountainous with a long coastline. For instance, the Alps complicated movement across the rivers. This therefore became a serious problem in preaching the gospel of the unification to the Italians. It also presented difficulty in securing foreign assistances not until 1850's when Cavour constructed the Monscenis tunnel railway line.