1. The 1815 Vienna settlement
The Vienna settlement of 1815 was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in
Europe.
The settlement ignored and undermined the forces of nationalism and
liberalism in Europe. It restored very unpopular rulers like the
Bourbons in France, Ferdinand VII in Spain, Ferdinand II in Naples and
Victor Emmanuel I in Piedmont' to their thrones. It became a forum for
Metternich to impose his anti liberal and anti nationalistic policies
against smaller nations like Italians and Germans. The settlement also
forcefully amalgamated Belgium with Holland to form the Kingdom of
Netherlands. All these were cardinal mistakes that brought instability
in Europe, which climaxed in the 1830 revolutions in France, Belgium,
Italian and German states. It should be noted that the settlement
ignored the independence of Poland and ratified the partition of Poland
between Russia, Austria and Prussia. This left the Poles with no other
better option to regain their independence than a revolution.
2. Unrealistic parliamentary system
Unfair
parliamentary system also caused the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions
in Europe. In the kingdom of Netherlands, the Belgians whose population
was 3.5 million were given equal number of seats in the parliament with
the Dutch whose population was only 2million. The Belgian members of
parliament were given equal number of seats in the parliament with the
Dutch whose population was only 2million. The Belgian mps were
government officials/sycophants who supported Dutch interest against
Belgian interest in parliament just to gain favour from King William I.
This left the Belgians who had social, political and economic problems
hopeless, which dragged them to the 1830 revolution.
In
Poland, Tsar Nicholas I ignored the polish parliament and never
summoned it until 1825. Even then the parliament remained powerless
since the king continued to rule according to his wishes. In France,
Charles X and his chief Minister Guizot issued the St- Cloude ordinance
of 1830 that dissolved the parliament.
They
nullified elections because many opposition had won seats in parliament
and ordered for fresh elections after reducing the number of eligible
voters from 100,000 to 25,000, which left 75,000 Frenchmen
disenfranchised. By 1830, there was popular demand for parliamentary
reforms and the government s insensitivity to such demands in Belgium,
Poland and France is what caused revolutions in such states.
3. Unrealistic constitutional system of governance
Unfair
constitutional system of governance was yet another issue that
contributed to the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. In the'
kingdom of Netherlands, the constitution favoured the Dutch to the
disadvantage of the Belgians. This was also extended in the courts of
law, which conditioned the Belgians to revolt in 1830. In Italian and
German states, Metternich and Austria ruled autocratically without a
constitution. In France, the 1814 constitution made property
qualification the basis of voting, which left about 100.000 Frenchmen
out of about 29 million eligible to vote. The violation of the 1814
constitutional charter by the restored bourbons discredited them from
liberal Frenchmen
The Belgians, Italians, Germans
and Frenchmen therefore wanted a constitutional system of government
such as that of Britain, which their leaders refused to adopt, hence the
outbreak of revolutions.
4. Political margilisation
The
1830 revolutions were also caused by unfair distribution of key
government positions. The Belgians were marginalized in favour of Dutch,
for instance, only one cabinet minister out of 7 was a Dutch, 9 out of
39 ambassadors were Belgians and all the 9 army generals were Dutch. In
Poland key government positions were awarded to Russians and Russians
replaced Polish officials in high positions. The Belgians and Poles
could not tolerate this political margilisation beyond 1830, hence the
outbreak of the revolutions.
5. Press censorship
Denial
of press freedom also contributed to the outbreak of 1830 revolutionary
movements in Europe. In the kingdom of Netherlands, the Belgian press
was severely censored while that of Holland was left free to operate. In
France, the restored bourbons (Louis XVIII from 1821 and Charles X from
1824) also censored the press just to avoid their weaknesses from being
made public. In Poland, the situation was the same. In all these states
there were heavy penalties on liberal journalists who defied the ban on
press freedom. This explains why the liberals, journalists,
intellectuals and editors spear headed the revolutions in states such as
Belgium, France and Poland.
6. The French revolution of 1789
Inspiration
from the French revolution of 1789 also occasioned the outbreak of the
1830 revolutions in Europe. The 1789 revolution came with revolutionary
ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity that inspired oppressed masses
with similar problems e.g. Italians, Belgians, Germans and Poles to
rebel in 1830. This was because the French revolution of 1789 provided a
practical example of how equality, liberty and attained against an
oppressive and exploitive government. They also learnt that the power
belongs to the oppressed people who can use revolutionary means to cause
the biggest political change. In France, the restored Bourbons learnt
nothing and forgot nothing from the French revolution of 1789, which
made the Frenchmen to stage yet another revolution in 1830.
7. Success of the French revolution of 1830
The
success of the French revolution of 1830 against the restored Bourbon
monarchy also contributed to the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in
other states. By 1830, the Italians were fed up with foreign domination
and oppression. They could not revolt due to fear of the Troppau
protocol through which Austria, Russia and Prussia had pledged to
suppress Lope and maintain the Vienna Settlement. However, they were
inspired to revolt in 1830 when they realized that the French succeeded
without any opposition/ intervention from neither the signatories of the
Vienna settlement nor the Troppau protocol powers. This is because the
success of the French men in the Feb. revolution portrayed the
vulnerability/ vincibility of the Vienna settlement and how it had lived
its usefulness.
8. British support of liberalism and nationalism
The
British liberal tendency and support towards liberalism was also
responsible for the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. Britain
was a liberal and democratic country that was displeased with foreign
domination and oppression. She pursued a non-interventionist foreign
policy but gave moral and indirect support to oppressed nations who were
struggling for freedom. This encouraged the Belgians, Italians,
Germans, French and Poles to revolt in 1830. This was because they
anticipated support and no opposition from British government.
9. Weakness and collapse of the congress system
The
weakness and collapse of the congress system by 1830 also contributed
to the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. The congress system
was established to maintain the Vienna settlement, which had undermined
nationalism and liberalism of the Belgians, Italians, Germans and Poles.
These nations were afraid of the congress powers that were bound to
crash any revolutionary movement against the Vienna Settlement. However,
the weaknesses of the congress system such as lack of joint army,
disunity of the members together with self-interest provided a line of
weakness for these nationalities to mobilize and revolt by 1830. It's
eventual collapse by 1830 left Europe more divided without any spirit of
togetherness in defending the Vienna settlement. The Belgians,
Italians, Germans and Poles used this as a golden opportunity to
mobilize and revolt by 1830.
10. Economic hardship
Economic
hardship prior to 1.830 made indispensable contribution to the outbreak
of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. There was massive corruption,
embezzlement of public funds and excessive/ over taxation of the
Italians, Germans, Poles, French and Belgians. Italians and Germans were
exploited through over taxation by corrupt Austrian officials and
Metternich. The French were affected by the effects of revolutionary and
Napoleonic wars plus the heavy war indemnity that was imposed on her
after the downfall of Napoleon. Belgian economy was paralyzed by
Leopold's free trade policy and over taxation of bread to the advantage
of the Dutch. The overall effects of these were poverty, famine,
inflation and unemployment that provided desperate conditions for the
outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe.
11. Side effects of industrial revolution
The
negative effects of industrialization also contributed to the outbreak
of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. It created more problems like
unemployment and low payments for long hours of work in poor working
conditions. The unemployed population in Belgium and France blamed their
governments for their problems. The workers also hated their
governments for failing to address their poor conditions of work.
Besides,
industrialization led to die rise of a strong middle class with
ambitions to gain political prominence/ positions by criticizing their
governments for failing to address the problems of unemployment and poor
conditions of work. This created the necessary atmosphere for the
explosion of the 1830 revolutions in Europe.
12. Religion.
Religion
was responsible for the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions especially in
Belgium and France. In the. Kingdom of Netherlands, Protestant religion
was made a state religion amidst protest from the Belgians who were
Catholics and excitement from the Dutch who were Protestants. Education
was made to be under the church, which meant that catholic schools were
indirectly given to Protestants since Protestants dominated key
government positions. Belgian religious leaders criticized such polices
and thus influenced the outbreak of the revolution. In France, Charles X
revived the church influence on state affairs and the privileges of the
clergy. This was a resurrection of the pre-1789 church influence and
privileges which the Frenchmen had shed blood to abolish in the 1789
revolution. Eventually, it dragged the Frenchmen to yet another
revolution in 1830.
13. Despotism
The
need to end dictatorship in Europe was also responsible for the
outbreak of the 1830 revolutions. In France, Charles X established a
perfect dictatorship in 1830 when he enacted the St. Cloude ordinance e
in which he declared a state of emergency, nullified elections and
ordered for a fresh one after reducing the number of voters from 100,000
to 25,000. Tsar Nicholas I killed many Poles whom he suspected to have
played a role in the death of his father. He also proposed to use the
Polish army to suppress the revolution in France that made them to
mutiny against him. In Belgium, Leopold II dictated policies that
favoured the Dutch against the Belgians e.g. he forced the Belgians to
use Dutch as official language. In Italian and
German states, Metternich system denied the Italians freedom of speech, association, worship, press etc.
The
above dictatorial and anti-liberal policies were unacceptable to the
French, Belgians, Italians and Germans, hence the outbreak of the 1830
revolutions in Europe.
14. The struggle for national independence and unification
The
desire to achieve independence and unification also caused the 1830
revolutions in Europe. The Vienna Settlement of 1815 undermined
nationalism and subjected Belgium to Dutch control, Poland to Russian
rule, Italians and Germans to Austrian influence. Metternich frustrated
Italian and German unifications through his repressive policy of divide
and rule, espionage and force. This made Italians and Germans who had
started struggling for unification earlier to continue after 1815, which
climaxed into the outbreak of 1830 revolutions. Thus, one can
comfortably assert that the struggle for national independence and
unification in Belgium, Poland, Italian and German states contributed to
the outbreak of 1830 revolutions in Europe.
15. Role of intellectuals and revolutionary leaders
Lastly,
the role-played by intellectuals and revolutionary leaders also caused
the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. In spite of press
censorship, Journalists, professors, teachers and lawyer's
clandestinely/ secretly condemned unrealistic policies of their
governments and inspired the masses with revolutionary emotions. Their
role was very influential in planning and mobilizing the masses and
foreign assistance for the revolution. Polignao led the revolution in
Belgium while, Lafayette, Louis Philippe, Adolph-Theirs, Lamar tine,
Tallyrand and Cavainag worked together to lead the revolution in France.
The revolutions in Poland and German states were led by intellectuals
especially university students. They read and interpreted the writings
of philosophers to the oppressed masses and made it easy to mobilize
them for the revolution.
The 1830 revolutions had positive
and negative effects on the political, social and economic developments
of Europe. Some of its effects were short term while others were long
term and everlasting in the history of Europe.
Negative effects
1. Loss of life and destruction of property
The
1830 revolutions resulted into massive loss of lives and destruction of
property. In Belgium, the Dutch troops attacked and killed thousands of
Belgians while the revolutionaries destroyed important places like
opera house. In Italian states, Spain and Portugal, civil war developed
after the revolutions and led to more death and destruction of property.
2. Downfall of Kings and their governments
The
1830 revolutions led to the downfall of Kings and their governments.
The revolution in Belgium overthrew the Belgian crown as the Belgians
regained their independence from king Leopold II of the Kingdom of
Netherlands. In France, Charles X and the restored Bourbon monarchy were
overthrown and never again re-surfaced in the political leadership of
France. In the German states of Brunswick, the ruling Duke was
overthrown. In the Italian states of Modena and Parma, King Francis IV
and Marie Louise were overthrown respectively. The downfall of these
Kings and governments were a direct consequence of revolutionary
activities against them.
3. Downfall of Louis Philippe and Orleans monarchy
The
1830 revolutions in Belgium, Italian states and Poland contributed to
the downfall of Louis Philippe and Orleans's monarchy in France. The
liberals. Catholics and glory seekers in France pressurized Louis
Philippe to assist the revolutionaries in Belgium, Italy and Poland but
Philippe declined. It made them to criticize his government and
leadership as incompetent of reviving the French lost glory and prestige
in Europe. This undermined the popularity of Louis Philippe and Orleans
monarchy right from the start and contributed to outbreak of 1848
revolution, which terminated Louis Philippe and the monarchy from the
"political landscape" of France.
4. Total Collapse of the Congress system
The
1830 revolutions led to total collapse of the congress system. The
congress system that was instituted maintain the Vienna settlement and
peace was finally brought to an end by the 1830 revolutions. The
revolutions created more divisions amongst the congress powers and
consequently undermined the concert of Europe/ spirit of togetherness.
For instance, Britain and France supported the revolution in Belgium,
which was opposed by Austria, Prussia and Russia. Britain and Russia
also supported the revolutions in Italian and German states against
Austria. All these undermined the concert of Europe and made it
impossible to revive the congress system that had already been weakened
by other factors.
5. Outbreak of1848 revolutions in Europe and 1863revolution in Poland
The
1830 revolutions also contributed to the outbreak of the 1848
revolutions in Europe. The suppression of Italian, German and Polish
revolutions left them more determined to fight due to unfulfilled aims
and objectives i.e. freedom. This partly explains why Italians and
Germans kept resisting Austrian influence, which climaxed into the 1848
revolutions. The success of the Belgium and French revolutions of 1830
discredited the Vienna settlement and moral boosted the Italians,
Germans and Poles to fight and overthrow the arrangement of the Vienna
settlement in their states. Besides, the revolutions made Metternich to
toughen his repressive policy against Italians, Germans and Hungarians
only to drag them the 1848 revolutions. The failure of the Poles to
achieve their aims and objectives in 1830 made them continue with the
struggle that led to the outbreak of yet another revolution in 1863.
6. Weakened Metternich's influence in Europe
Metternich’s
influence and system in Europe were undermined by the 1830 revolutions.
In the Vienna settlement of 1815; Metternich influenced the delegates
to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France and amalgamate Belgium with
Holland. This was successfully reversed in 1830 when the restored
Bourbons were over thrown and Belgium broke off from Holland. Metternich
failed to influence European statesmen to suppress the revolutions and
preserve the Vienna settlement. The rise of Louis Philippe in France and
Leopold Saxe-Coburg in Belgium with anti-Metternich background and
policies left Metternich isolated from 1830. It helped to shift the
balance of power from Vienna to London. This partly explains why there
was increased opposition to Metternich's influence in Europe from 1830
-1848.
7. Oppression and suppression of the masses
The 1830 revolutions had disastrous consequences in areas where the revolutionaries failed to succeed.
Oppressive policies were adopted to safeguard the re-emergence of further revolutionary movements.
Metternich
oppressed the Italians and Germans more by tightening his conservative
and anti-liberal policies e.g. press censorship, imprisonment and exile
of liberals, spy network and use of force. Tsar Nicholas I abolished
freedom of press and parliament in Poland. He forcefully took polish
children for military training in Russia. He went ahead to close the
University of Warsaw and turned the entire city of Warsaw into a
military garrison. It should be noted that severe suppression and
militarism in the aftermath of the revolutions forced hundreds of
Italians, Germans and Poles into exile especially in Western Europe and
America.
Positive effects
8. Success of the revolutions in France and Belgium
The
revolutions in France and Belgium succeeded and the revolutionaries
were able to take power from conservative and despotic leaders. This
strengthened the forces of liberalism and nationalism not only in France
and Belgium but also all over Europe. However, the revolutions in
Poland, Spain, Italian and German states failed to succeed. The
revolutions in Poland were suppressed by Russian troops while those of
German and Italian states were crushed by Austrian and local royalists.
9. Success of the Greek war of independence
The
success of the Greek war of independence was facilitated by the 1830
revolutions. The Greeks started are rebellion against Turkey in 1821 and
were still fighting by 1830. The outbreak of revolutions in France,
Belgium, Poland, Italian and German, states created more instability in
Europe that diverted the attention of European powers. This made the
major powers of Europe unable to oppose the Greek revolt and instead
support the declaration of her independence in 1832 i.e. Britain, France
and Russia.
10. Rise of new men and governments
The
1830 revolutions also led to the emergence of new men and governments
in the politics of Europe. In Belgium, an independent constitutional
monarchy was established under the leadership of Leopold Saxe-Coburg, as
its first king. In France, the Orleans monarchy under the leadership of
Louis Philippe took over power after the success of the revolution. IPs
also important to acknowledge that the middle class who had been
discriminated in French politics dominated key positions in government.
The failure of the revolution in Italian states led to the rise of
Mazzini who formed the young Italian movement to fight for Italian
independence and unification.
11. Consolidation of constitutional liberal system of government
The
revolution led to attainment of constitutional liberal system of
government in Europe. In France, the 1814 charter was revised in 1830
and thus the Orleans monarchy became a liberal constitutional monarchy.
Belgium was also declared a liberal constitutional monarchy with an
independent judiciary, elected parliament and executive. In Brunswick [a
German state], Spain and Portugal, the post revolutionary governments
were forced to grant liberal constitutions. One can therefore conclude
that the 1830 revolutions consolidated the idea of constitutionalism in
Europe.
12. Exposed the weakness of the Vienna settlement
The
revolutions undermined the credibility of the Vienna settlement and
destroyed its achievements. The settlement had undermined liberalism and
nationalism in Belgium, Poland, Italian and German states by imposing
foreign rule. In France, the settlement underrated the achievements of
the French revolution and Napoleon by restoring the rule of the
Bourbons. However, the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in these slates
manifested that the Vienna settlement was unrealistic in maintaining a
lasting peace in Europe. The revolutions also helped to overturn the bad
arrangements of the settlement in Belgium and France. Even where the
revolutions did not succeed e.g. Italian and German states, the forces
of liberalism and nationalism were strengthened, which kept undermining
the credibility of the settlement. This was shown when the restored
Bourbon monarchy was over thrown and Belgium separated from Holland.
The 1830revolutions in Europe occurred in France, Belgium, Poland, German stales, Italian states etc.
They possessed similar characteristics in their causes, course and consequences.
1.
The roots / origin of the 1830 revolutions can be traced back to the
French revolution of 1789. The revolution came with the idea of liberty,
equality and fraternity that inspired ItaU.ans, Germans and Poles to
rebel in 1830. They also used strategies and tactics adopted from the
French in 1789. Besides, the success of the 1830 revolutions in France
also moral boosted these states to revolt in 1830.
2.
The revolutions were also caused by the unrealistic Vienna settlement
of 1815. The settlement imposed foreign rule on the Belgians, Italians
and Germans. It also restored the unpopular bourbon rule in France.
These brought bitter resentment that flared up into 1830revolutions.
3.
The revolutions were either liberal or nationalistic in nature. The
revolutionaries revolted in demand for liberal reforms and independence
or liberal reforms only. In France, they demanded for liberal reforms
only because they were already independent. In Belgium, Poland, Italian
and German states the revolutionaries needed liberal reforms as well as
independence.
4. The timing and spread of the 1830
revolutions provides some similarities. The revolutions broke out in the
same year i.e. 1830 and those that failed were suppressed by the end of
1830. It started from France in Feb. 1830 and spread to other states.
5.
Foreign intervention is yet another feature that characterized the 1830
revolutions in Europe. Britain and France sent their troops to assist
the Belgians in 1831.They were also influential in proclaiming Belgium
as an independent and neutral state by 1832. On the other hand, Russian
troops crushed Polish revolution by the end of 1830. In Italian and
German states, Austrian troops were used to quell the revolutions.
6. The revolutions were based in the urban centers. The rural dwellers played little role in the revolutions.
Urban towns like Paris in France, Berlin and Brunswick in the German states, Milan in Piedmont and
Warsaw
in Poland became the base for mobilization and fighting by the
revolutionaries. This was because urban centers had the greatest impact
of industrial revolution. Above all, the workers, middle class and
intellectuals were the residents of such towns.
7.
The 1830 revolutions were led by intellectuals and middle classmen. They
included lawyers, journalists, teachers and university students. For
instance, Adolph Theirs, Lafayette, Lamar tine etc. led the revolution
in France. Mazzinni, Gilbert and Garibaldi co-coordinated the rebellion
in Italian states. University students in German states and Poland
provided leadership to the revolutionaries.
8.
Apart from the revolutions in Belgium and France, the other revolutions
failed to achieve their main objectives. The Italians, Germans, poles
and Spaniards were all quelled down by 1831. They failed to dislodge
foreign rule and were persecuted there after the revolutions were
quelled down.
9. The 1830 revolutions were also
characterized by heavy bloodshed, destruction of property and exile to
thousands of people. The counter revolutionary measures by the existing
governments led to loss of thousands of lives and self-exile of key
suspects e.g. Mazzini and Garibaldi in Italian states.
10.
The desperate socio-economic conditions coupled with the side effects
of industrial revolutions were similar factors that caused the outbreak
of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. Famine, poverty, inflation,
unemployment, poor working conditions, income inequality, unfair
taxation system and corruption were problems that the pre-revolutionary
governments failed to settle. These were issues that drove the French,
poles, Italians, Germans and Belgians to take a revolutionary stand in
1830.
11. Other than Belgium, the revolutions
occurred in less industrialized countries with poor economies. Countries
like France, Poland, Italian and German states were agrarian/
agricultural with poor economies. This explains why the problems of
poverty, inflation, famine, unemployment etc. were so profound that the
revolutions became inevitable by 1830. On the other hand, Britain
survived because of her strong economy and industrial base.
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