Contributions/ Role Of European Powers In The Dowfall Of The Congress System

Contributions/ Role Of European Powers In The Dowfall Of The Congress System

1) Britain (Lord Stewart Castlereagh and George Canning)

I) Britain was primarily responsible for the collapse of the congress system. She pursued a policy of isolation from continental obligations i.e. non interventionist foreign policy. The policy was to avoid unnecessary expenses, loss of her citizens in suppressing revolutions and negative public opinion in case of failures. The policy was unfortunate for the congress system because it was Britain that played the greatest role in the dawn fall of Napoleon and her role in the post Napoleonic re-organization of Europe was therefore of paramount importance. Above all, Britain was the most politically stable state and the greatest economic and military power in Europe. The British isolation therefore denied the congress system of her enormous economic resources and military power that could have improved the capacity of the congress system to meet its challenges. Her isolation gave Metternich an added advantage to impose his conservative, anti; liberal and nationalistic policies on Europe against smaller states. This led to the outbreak of revolutionary movements in 1820's that destabilized Europe and divided the Congress powers, thus leading to the downfall of the congress system.

ii). Britain is blamed for her moral and logistical support to liberal and nationalistic movements in Greece, Spain, Naples, Argentina, Italian and German states. Being a liberal and democratic state where respect for fundamental human rights and freedom were adhered to, Britain did not see any sense in suppressing revolutions that were intended to overthrow oppressive, exploitative and tyrannical leaders. Lord Castlereagh made it very clear in his state paper which was published in 1820 that:

... Britain owed her present dynasty and constitution to an internal revolution. She could not therefore deny to other countries the same right of changing their form of government (Grant and Temperleys, PP 142 - 143).

This explains why Britain opposed the idea of suppressing revolutions right from the Congress of

Aix-la-Chapelle as interference in to the internal affairs of other nations. It antagonized Britain with Austria, Prussia and Russia who favoured the policy of suppressing revolutions hence the collapse of the Congress system.

iii). Britain supported the Monroe doctrine against the interest of other congress powers. In Dec 1823, President Monroe of America issued the famous Monroe doctrine in which he warned other powers against intervention on American affairs especially on matters related to the Spanish colonies.

George Canning of Britain overwhelmingly supported the doctrine against Russia, France, Prussia and Austria who had declared their intension to help Spain recover her colonies that she had lost as a result of the 1823 revolution. Besides, Britain threatened to fight any power that would cross the Atlantic Ocean to South America be it in Spain or France irrespective of the motive. This left the rest of the congress powers frustrated, defeated the principle of intervention, and tore the congress system further apart.

iv). George Canning of Britain officially withdrew British membership of the congress system in 1823.

Britain was committed to alliance system mainly to safeguard her commercial interest against French and Napoleonic aggressions. This threat ended with the defeat of Napoleon and admission of France in the congress system, leaving Britain uncommitted to congress affairs thereafter. The French intervention in Spain in 1823 gave George Canning the opportunity to officially withdraw British membership to the congress system at the congress of Verona. He considered the French restoration of Ferdinand VII to his throne in Spain as “…. an affront to the pride of England," He further commented that: The issue of Verona has split the one and indivisible alliance and so things are getting back to a whole some state again, every nation for itself and God for us all.

He concluded that "Praise God that there would be no more Congresses" and resorted to the policy of every nation for itself and God for us all. This was the practical disintegration of the congress system.

v). After withdrawing from the congress system, Britain declined to review her policy. She refused to participate in the 1824 congress that was called by Ferdinand VII of Spain to settle the issue of

Spanish colonies, which made the intended congress to abort. She also declined to attend the 1825 congress of St. Petersburg that was called by Tsar Nicholas I to settle the question of the Greek struggle for independence. This frustrated Russian intension to peacefully address the question of Greek independence and gave opportunity for escalation of violence that left European powers more divided.

vi). Britain openly rejected the Troppau protocol that was declared by Austria, Prussia and Russia. In 1820, the three powers at the congress of Troppau passed the Troppau protocol in which they pledged to suppress revolutions whenever and wherever they occurred. Lord Stewart Castlereagh argued that such a measure would frustrate genuine internal struggle to overthrow oppressive, exploitative and autocratic rulers. He was so furious when he addressed the British parliament that he sarcastically declared the protocol "a destitute of common sense" and argued the concerned powers to confine the congress system within the limits of common sense. This weakened the principle of intervention and provoked liberal and nationalistic revolutions in smaller states that became a challenge leading to the downfall of the Congress System.

vii). Britain had long term negative feelings and hatred for Russia and Austria. She disliked Russia for her imperialism in the Middle East and the Mediterranean Sea because it threatened her commercial interest. She hated Austria because Metternich had dominated Europe and centralized European affairs in Vienna. George Canning wanted European affairs to be centralized and settled in London than Vienna (Austria). In other words, Canning wanted to hijack the balance of power from Austria in order to consolidate British supremacy in European affairs. The British preconceived hatred and negative feelings against Russia and Austria led to unnecessary disagreements involving her and other powers such as the issues of joint army, piracy, slave trade, Spanish revolution and Greek independence. It thus led to mistrust, suspicion and disharmony that doomed the Congress system.

viii). Britain was a big force behind the Vienna congress which laid a poor foundation for the congress system. The congress unfairly restored the most oppressive and dictatorial rulers and undermined the forces of liberalism and nationalism of the smaller states. She was also a signatory of the quadruple alliance that set foundation for discrimination of the smaller states. Above all, Britain manipulated the Congress to gain too much territory to the annoyance of Russia and Prussia.

These became a very weak foundation on which the congress system was built and thus contributed to its eventual collapse.

ix). The British selfish desire to safeguard her economic interest ejected her out of the Congress system. She had a hidden agenda of using the congress system to protect her trade zone and acquire more territories for her merchants. However, her interest in the Middle East and

Mediterranean Sea was threatened by Russian imperialism and influence in the area. This left

Britain that had initially opposed the Greek war of independence to turn round and support the Greeks alongside Russia when she noted that the success of the struggle was inevitable. She did this because Russia's assistance in establishing a new Greek state on the map of Europe would be a serious setback to her commercial interest in the Middle East and Mediterranean Sea. She also supported the Monroe doctrine and warned other powers not to cross the Atlantic Ocean to suppress the revolution in Spain because her trade with Latin American states had drastically improved since Ferdinand YD was ousted from power. Thus, British selfish economic interest conflicted with common interest that the congress system was to promote leading to its down fall by 1825.

x). Britain opposed and vetoed the idea of forming a Joint international army at the congress of Aix -La Chapalle in 1818. Fredrick William III of Prussia had proposed the formation of a joint army based in Brussels to suppress revolutions, Lord Costlereagh rejected it that it would amount to interfering in the internal affairs of other states. It left the congress system without a force to implement its resolutions, which encouraged smaller states like Italy, Spain, Naples and Greece to wage a struggle for their freedom without fear. Absence of a joint army weakened the congress system and made it more theoretical than practical hence accounting for its downfall.

xi) Lastly, Britain's desire to safeguard her naval supremacy, also contributed to the downfall of the congress system. At the congress of Aix - La Chapalle (1818), Tsar Alexander I of Russia suggested a joint military operation in the Mediterranean Sea to fight Sea pirates. This was out rightly rejected by Castlereagh who feared that the presence of Russian warships in the Mediterranean sea would be a big challenge to her naval supremacy and monopoly of the sea. It should be noted that pirates were not a big threat to Britain because they feared and respected British ships contrary to those of other powers.

This therefore left a legacy of suspicion and intense bitterness in other powers against Britain that made the collapse of the congress system inevitable.

2. Austria (Francis II and Prince Metternich) 

i). Austria hosted the Vienna congress that laid a shaky foundation, which led to the collapse of the congress system. Prince Metternich who chaired the congress manipulated the congress to restore unpopular legitimate rulers and maintained them by suppressing revolutionary movements against them. He also influenced the congress to undermine nationalistic and liberal feelings of the smaller states by subjecting them to foreign domination. This consolidated conservation and led to the outbreak of liberal and nationalistic revolutions that undermined the Congress system. Besides, Metternich's desire to maintain Austria's supremacy and Vienna as the diplomatic theatre of Europe angered Britain and partly influenced George Canning to withdraw Britain's membership from the congress system.

ii) Austria is blamed for her imperialism and domination of the smaller states. She used the Vienna congress to dominate European affairs and smaller states e.g. Italians and Germans. It promoted imbalance of power that other powers did not admire. Her domination of the smaller states triggered nationalistic protests such as the 1820's revolts in Naples and piedmont that divided the congress powers. It should be stressed that Austria's suppression of such revolts and restoration of ousted kings was authorized by the congress of Laibach (1822) amidst British opposition, which partly influenced Britain to pull out of the congress system by 1823.i

iii) Austria was influential in issuing the 1820 Troppau Protocol in which Prussia, Russia and herself vowed to suppress revolutions and restore ousted kings in Europe. The spread of liberalism and nationalism was a formidable threat to the heterogeneous Austrian empire as they would trigger nationalistic movements that could break the empire into pieces. This background made her influence Prussia and Russia to issue the Troppau protocol, which Britain rejected out rightly and France accepted with reservations. This widened the gap between liberal countries (Britain and France) Vis-a Vis conservative states (Prussia, Russia and Austria), thus leading to the collapse of the congress system.

iv) Austria's conservative ideology dragged her to oppose the granting of the Greek independence. She supported Turkish autocratic rule over the Greeks and opposed the Greek struggle for freedom from the congress of Verona up to the end of the congress system. It brought her into conflict with Russia, Britain and France who assisted the Greeks to attain their independence. This explains why no more congress was held after the heated debate at the congress of St. Petersburg where Austria and Prussia protested to Russian, British and French assistance to the Greeks.

v)Austria is also blamed for her opposition to the formation of a joint naval force to right slave dealers.

Castleragh proposed this idea at the congress of Aix - Lachapalle in 1818 but Austria rejected it on suspicion that it would give Britain more power to support revolutionary movements in other states.

This undermined the spirit of cooperation and togetherness that was essential for the survival of the congress system.

vi).Austrian influence through the Metternich system made the downfall of the congress system inevitable. Metternich manipulated the congress system to consolidate Austria's supremacy, promote conservatism and suppress the revolutionary forces of liberty, equality and fraternity. He used the congress system to enhance his oppressive anti; liberal and nationalistic policies of press censorship, spy net work, divide and rule, force etc. This could not be tolerated after the rise of Charles X in France, George Canning in Britain and Tsar Nicholas I in Russia. These new generations of leaders were opposed to conservative Metternich policies and influence over the congress system. No wonder that they sympathized and supported liberal struggles such as in Greece against Metternich's expectation. This killed the congress spirit and brought the congress system to an end.

3.Russia (Tsar Alexander 1, 1801-1825,and Tsar Nicholas1, 1825-1855)

Russia was part of the unrealistic Vienna Congress and the Troppau Protocol that consolidated

Metternich's conservatism against the forces of liberalism and nationalism. The Vienna Congress discriminated small states and restored oppressive and unpopular kings to their thrones. The 1820 Troppau protocol brought Russia, Austria and Prussia in alliance to defend oppressive rulers that Britain rejected and France accepted reluctantly. All these led to tension in Europe and undermined the congress system leading to its downfall.

Russia's imperial ambitions in the Balkans were also responsible for the downfall of the congress system. Her desire to take control of the Balkans by supporting nationalistic movements brought her into logger heads with Austria and Britain. Austria protested such support because it would spark off nationalistic movements within her heterogeneous empire. Britain objected because it would undermine her commercial interest in the Middle East. Thus, Russian imperialism in the Balkans threatened the interest of other powers and brought disharmony that led to the downfall of the congress system.

iii).Russia was the first power to support the Greek war of independence, which is an event that accelerated the downfall of the congress system. She incited the Greeks against Turkey and proceeded to support them militarily. Although Britain and France initially opposed Russia's secret assistance to the Greeks, Russia's continued assistance and the high prospects of Greek success made them to change their mind and join Russia to assist the Greeks. This was a desperate measure by Britain to safeguard her economic interest and France to safeguard her religious motives against Russia's threatening influence. On the other hand, Austria and Prussia opposed such assistance including the granting of independence to the Greeks. Thus, Russia's support to the Greeks divided the congress powers into two and caused its collapse.

iv.) Russia's ambitions to challenge Britain's naval supremacy brought disharmony between her and Britain. She provoked Britain's suspicion by stationing her warships in the Mediterranean Sea. Tsar Alexander I went ahead at the congress of Aix - Lachapalle to propose the formation of a joint force to fight pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. This was rejected by Lord Stewart Castlereagh as a move to strengthen Russian influence in the Mediterranean Sea in order to challenge Britain's supremacy.

Indeed, British suspicion to Russia's challenge to her naval superiority was too deep rooted that she could not accept her (Russia's) noble call to fight pirates that was a common threat to trade across the Mediterranean Sea.

v) The death of Tsar Alexander I in 1825 led to the rise of Tsar Nicholas I whose attitude and policies buried the congress system. Tsar Nicholas I was too proud, arrogant and confident in Russia's military strength that he felt insulted to be restrained in his foreign policy. He developed a more aggressive and interventionist foreign policy that was reflected in his determination to assist the Greeks against Turkey. Besides his inexperience and narrow/little knowledge of European affairs, Tsar Nicholas I was not one of the historical founders of the Congress system and thus cared little for its existence. His character and support of the Greeks was seriously protested by Prussia and Austria at the congress of St. Petersburg and ended in total confusion. This destroyed the congress spirit and there were no more congress held thereafter.

4. Prussia (Fredrick William III)

i) Prussia is blamed for being a signatory to the Vienna settlement and the Troppau protocol. The Vienna resolutions and the Troppau protocol consolidated conservatism and undermined the spirit of liberalism and nationalism in Europe. The principle of intervention that Prussia supported in the protocol was unacceptable to Britain and small powers that were oppressed. It brought liberal and nationalistic protests that divided the congress powers leading to the disintegration of the congress system.

ii).Fredrick William III joined other powers in opposing Castlereagh's proposal for a joint operation to stop slave trade at the congress of Aix - La - Chapalle. This left Castlereagh frustrated and partly forced her to resort to her usual policy of isolation that led to the collapse of the congress system.

iii).Prussia opposed the Greek war of independence and the granting of Geek independence. This brought her into conflict with Russia, Britain and France who were assisting the Greeks to regain their independence. Prussia allied with Austria and stood against supporting the Greeks and the granting of Greek independence at the congress of St. Petersburg that made the congress to end in total chaos.

5. France (Louis XVIII, 1814-1824 and Charles X, 1824-1830)

i). France was the source of revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. These ideas were consolidated by Napoleonic influence on Europe and led to the rise of the spirit of liberalism and nationalism in Europe. They led to the outbreak of revolutions such as the 1820's movements in Spain, Naples and Greece. This brought conflict between the congress powers hence leading to the downfall of the congress system.

ii).The admission of France in the congress system at the congress of Aix - La- Chapalle in 1818 contributed to the downfall of the congress system. It brought reconciliation between France and other powers and ended the danger of French aggression in Europe. It undermined the unity of purpose and the spirit of togetherness that had brought European powers together in defense against revolutionary and Napoleonic aggressions. It also provided Britain with an opportunity to concentrate on her own internal problems and pursue the policy of splendid isolation. Besides, France was not fully trusted and thus treated with suspicion by the quadruple powers most especially Russia. This undermined the spirit of trust, cooperation, harmony and unity that led to the downfall of the congress system.

iii). France is blamed for getting entangled in the Greek war of independence alongside Britain and Russia. As a great Christian state, France felt that Russian's unilateral assistance to the Greeks would make her dominant in the Balkans and jeopardize her religious interest. It is this that drove her to join Russia and Britain to assist the Greeks. This move was however protested by Prussia and Austria leading to the collapse of the congress system.

 iv). It was Bishop Tallyrand, the French representative at the Vienna Congress who initiated the unrealistic principle of legitimacy. Richelieu, the French representative in the congress system continued to advocate for the restoration and maintenance of dictatorial, oppressive and conservative kings in Europe. It left the congress system as an alliance to promote conservatism, oppression and exploitation of the smaller states. This earned the congress system enormous unpopularity that could not make it exist beyond 1825.

Louis XVI's suppression of the Spanish revolution and restoration of Ferdinand to his throne is what ejected Britain out of the congress system. By 1823, Spanish revolutionaries had overthrown Ferdinand VII from his throne. At the congress of Verona in 1822, Britain objected to any attempt to restore Ferdinand VD to his throne. However, France was permitted by other powers to suppress the revolution and restore Ferdinand back to his throne, which she accomplished in 1823. George Canning Was so disturbed by the French action that he lamented:

The issue of Spain has split the one and indivisible alliance and so things are getting back to a whole same state again, every nation for itself and God for us all.

He consequently withdrew Britain from the congress system that became the biggest blow, which led to the down fall of the congress system.

6. USA (President Monroe)

President Monroe of USA issued the famous Monroe doctrine that split the congress powers and led to the downfall of the congress system. On December 1823, he issued the doctrine where he warned that any interference by European powers on American soil would be regarded “ as manifestation of an unfriendly disposition to the United States”. (H.L Peacock, A history of modern Europe, 7th ' Edition p. 89).This defeated the Troppau protocol and the principle of intervention that Austria, Prussia, Russia and France wanted to use to restore Ferdinand VII to his throne. It was fully supported by Britain against other congress powers hence splitting the congress powers and enhancing the downfall of the congress system.

Spain (Ferdinand VII)

Ferdinand VII is blamed for his exploitative, oppressive and tyrannical rule that triggered a revolution, which divided the congress powers. Besides, Spain had imperial influence in Latin America.

However; Spanish revolutionaries overthrew him and his colonies in America regained their independence. The issue brought a heated disagreement at the congress of Verona where Britain vehemently opposed the attempt by other powers to restore Ferdinand to his throne. When France went ahead to restore Ferdinand to his throne in 1823, George Canning pulled Britain out of the congress system. He later supported the Monroe doctrine that scared the congress powers, from suppressing the revolution in Spain and restoring Ferdinand VII to his throne. This became a big challenge to the principle of intervention and contributed to the downfall of the congress system.

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