Aims And Objectives Of The Congress System

1. To defend, protect and implement the terms of the earlier arrangements like the quadruple alliance, Vienna settlement and the second Paris peace treaty.

2. The system was established as an instrument to maintain peace in Europe. It was to maintain international relations and settle disputes peacefully.

3. To create unity and co-existence in Europe. The chief target here was France that had reformed by 1818.

4. To consolidate the quadruple alliance that was established in 1815 against France. Although France was admitted in the congress system, she was still suspected and that is why the quadruple powers decided to isolate her and renew the alliance.

5. To find ways and means of protecting legitimate rulers who were being threatened by revolutions. The formation of a joint force based at Brussels for the purpose of suppressing revolutions.

6. The condition of Napoleon and his welfare was also to be addressed by the congress system. 7. There was a general feeling of fair treatment of Napoleon at the Island of St. Hellena.

8. The question of the Jews was yet another cause of concern to the congress powers. The Jews were scattered throughout Europe and were being persecuted. The congressmen wanted to establish a permanent settlement for them.

9. The issue of pirates especially on the Mediterranean Sea was yet another problem to be addressed by the congress system. They were undermining international trade by hijacking, kidnapping and robbing ships and traders on the sea.

10. To promote economic co-operation in Europe. There was need to re-organize European economies that had not fully recovered from the effects of Napoleonic wars and continental system,

11. The quadruple powers of Austria, Russia, Prussia and Britain; having experienced the dangers of Napoleonic aggression wanted to develop a strategy to frustrate the rise to power of anyone from Napoleon's ruling family line (Bonapartism). This is because they feared that such a person possesses inherited aggressive character of Napoleon I and could attempt to revive Napoleonic empire that was imposed over Europe by Napoleon I.

The Congress Ofatx-Lachapalle (Nov1818)

This was the first congress within the congress system. It was held in 1818 and attended by Castlereagh of Britain, Francis I and Metternich of Austria, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Fredrick William III of Prussia and Richelieu of France. The issues that were discussed included; the position of France in the concert of Europe, pirates in the Mediterranean Sea, maintenance of earlier agreements and condition of Napoleon at the Island of St. Hellena. NB. The congress of Aix-Lachapalle was the beginning and climax of the congress system. It was recognized as the supreme council of Europe. It's for this reason that Metternich is reported to have remarked that he had never seen a prettier little congress.

 THE CONGRESS OF TROPPAV, 1820

The Troppau congress was called by Tsar Alexander I to find solutions to political unrests and revolutions that were sweeping across Europe. These were serious in the German and Italian states, Spain, France, Poland and England. Austria, Prussia and Russia signed he Troppau protocol in which they vowed to suppress revolutions wherever and whenever it raised its head/occurred. Austria was “licensed” /permitted to restore Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII of Spain to their thrones. However, this was rejected by Britain and France who had merely sent observers. Britain, being a liberal country argued that there were genuine reasons against restored leaders and that she was only concerned about preventing the return of Napoleon or his dynasty to France. Castlereagh was so furious when he addressed the parliament that he declared the Troppau protocol "a destitute of common sense" and argued the powers concerned to act within common sense limit. This is a clear signal that the concert of Europe was doomed.

THE CONGRESS OF LAIBACH JAN1821

This  was the third congress held at Laibach in Austria. It was a continuation of the congress of Troppau. The  congress was to implement the Troppau resolutions. Austria was granted permission to suppress the revolutions in Naples and Piedmont. This was done and the ousted kings were restored to power. The congress was adjourned with arrangements to re-assemble at Verona.

THE CONGRESS OF VERONA. OCT 1822.

This congress was called at Verona in Italy. It was provoked by the Greek and Spanish revolts. Britain and Austria denounced Russia's secret assistance of the Greeks and the congress failed to resolve the conflict.

Tsar Alexander's proposal to send 15,000 Russian troops to suppress the revolt was greeted with suspicion and consequently rejected. However, Austria, Prussia and even Russia permitted France to suppress the revolution in Spain. France eventually suppressed the revolution and restored Ferdinand to his throne in 1823. 

The French adventure in Spain was a practical defeat to Canning who admitted that The entry of the French army into Spain was affront to the pride of England. He made further remarks that; The issue of Verona has split the one and indivisible alliance and so things are getting back to a wholesome state again, every nation for itself and God for us all. He went ahead and said; praise God that there would be no more congresses. This was the biggest blow for the congress system.

The Spanish and Portuguese colonies also revolted in 1823, demanding for independence. The Spanish colonies were strategically and economically very significant for British trade. Britain had acquired a hold there when Spain was involved in the Napoleonic wars. Britain therefore refused any intervention in the Spanish colonies. At the same time, president Monroe of U.S.A warned Europe about America when he said;

Any interference by European powers on the American continent would be regarded as a manifestation of unfriendly disposition to the United States.

Thus, faced with the prospect of confronting both Britain and U.S.A, the other powers backed down and no one intervened in S. America.

5. THE CONGRESS OFST. PETERSBURG, 1825

This was the last congress that took place at St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia. It was called by Tsar Alexander I to settle the eastern question especially the Greek war of Independence. George Canning of

Britain flatly refused to either attend or send a delegate to the conference but the other powers sat at St. Petersburg In Jan 1825. However, they ended up In total confusion and departed In May on very bad terms without any resolution or achievement. To all purposes and Intents, this was practically the end of the congress system in the history of Europe.

Achievements Of The Congress System

1. Admission of France in to the congress system

The congress system succeeded in bringing reconciliation and peaceful co-existence between France and other powers. By 18I8, France had behaved well and fulfilled the terms of the second Paris peace treaty.

For example, she had paid the war indemnity and there was no threat of aggression from her (France). This enabled France to be admitted in the quadruple alliance which became the Quintuple alliance at the congress of Aix-Lachapalle. It left her reconciled with no spirit of revenge that became a landmark towards peace and stability in Europe.

2. Protection of the Jews

The congress system succeeded in resolving the question of protecting the Jews in Europe. The Jews who had spread throughout Europe were being persecuted and denied citizenship. However, the congress of Aix-Lachapalle granted them freedom to stay anywhere where they had been living before 1118. The Jews were given citizenship in any European country until 1948 when the state of Israel was founded for them.

3. Swedish debt to Denmark

 The congress of Aix-Lachapalle settled the Debt problem between Sweden and Denmark. Denmark had borrowed money from Sweden and had failed to pay by 1818. The congressmen of Ax-Lachapalle forced Denmark to pay the debt. This ended hostility between the two states and hence avoided war that would have undermined peace in Europe.

4. Suppression of revolutions

The congress system succeeded in suppressing and containing the flow of revolutions and revolutionary ideas in Europe. At the congress of Troppau, Austria, Russia and Prussia Signed the Troppau protocol in which they vowed to use peaceful means as Well  as force to suppress revolutions.It was in the Troppau protocol spirit that Austria and France suppressed the revolutions in Naples and Spain respectively. To this extent, the congress system achieved its aim of maintaining the Vienna settlement.

5. Protection of restored rulers 

Legitimate rulers who had been restored by the Vienna settlement were maintained in their thrones by the congress system. By 1830, such restored rulers were threatened by revolutions and in some cases over thrown. The congress powers intervened by crushing the revolutions and restoring such rulers to their thrones. This was the case with Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII of Spain who were restored by Austria and France respectively. They were restored according to the principle of Troppau protocol 1820.

6. Balance of power and French aggression

The congress system maintained the balance or power that had been initiated by the Vienna settlement of1815. The territorial boundaries that the Vienna peacemakers established in 1815 were preserved by the congress powers. Europe from 1818 remained relatively stable because no one power was allowed to be too powerful to disturb the continent The congress system also maintained stability in France and she was made part of the system. This preserved the balance of power and avoided further aggression especially from France. Even if France intervened in Spain, she did so with the official consent of Austria, Prussia and Russia

7. Preservation of the reorganized map of Europe

The congress system is credited for maintaining die redrawn map of Europe that die Vienna peace makers had designed. The settlement had reduced the size of France to those of 1790 and partitioned smaller states like Saxony and Poland amongst the big powers. The congress system ensured that this arrangement and permanent border restrictions intended to avoid territorial disputes between nations were adhered to. These helped European powers to respect the territorial integrity and independence of other powers, which explains why there were no open territorial clashes /war in Europe during the congress era/period.

8. Maintenance of Napoleon l’s defeat

The congress system maintained the defeat of Napoleon 1. Napoleon 1was defeated way back in 1815 and exiled to the rocky island of St. Hellena. The congress powers closely monitored Napoleon including any communication to or from him in order to frustrate any intention of sneaking back to France as he had in 1814 from the island of Elba. It thus became impossible for Napoleon to reorganize himself, bounce back and wage war against European powers as before. This explains why Napoleon I lived a docile solitary (lonely) life up to his death in 1821

9. Safeguard against Bonapartism

The congress system safeguarded Europe against the rise of anybody from Napoleons ruling family (Bonaparte dynasty). The congress powers ensured that the Bourbon monarchy that was restored to power by the Vienna congress was maintained as a bull work against the rise of Bonapartism in France. The admission of France in 1818 in the congress system was a strategy to reconcile with France as a nation, integrate her in Europe and sideline Bonapartism. This explains why the Bonaparte dynasty was kept out

Of European politics during the congress era much as Bonapartism was a vibrant political pressure group in France.

10. Preservation of constitutionalism in Europe

The congress system preserved the idea of constitutionalism in Europe. It maintained a constitutional system of monarchy that the Vienna settlement had restored in France. The congress powers prevailed upon the restored Bourbon rulers (Louis xviii and Charles x) to use the 1814 constitutional charter as a fundamental document in their leadership. The monarchy was also protected against Bonapartist threat by keeping Napoleon I at the island of St Hellena up to his death in 1821. Besides, the powers also honoured the constitutional changes that occurred in Naples in the aftermath of the 1820 revolution. The ruler of Monaco was also ordered at Aix-la Chapalle to reform his administration and adhere to constitutional system of leadership. All these helped to promote people’s political rights and freedom against expected dictatorial tendencies in Europe.

11. Interstate co-operation

Interstate political and economic co-operation was maintained by the congress system. Freedom of navigation on all big waters like Mediterranean Sea and black sea that was achieved by the Vienna settlement was maintained. This preserved and promoted diplomatic co-operation, commercial prosperity and peace in Europe.

12. Peace

The congress system made a great achievement as an instrument of peace. The constant meetings from 1818 - 1822 kept the powers in touch and settled problems that would have caused war. This included the Swedish debt to Denmark, the question of the Jews, suppression of revolutions e.g. the 1820's revolutions in Spain and Naples and protection of legitimate rulers. By peacefully settling such disputes, the congress system made Europe to enjoy a period of relative peace and stability for nearly 40 years. This explains why there were no major wars involving the great powers until the outbreak of the Crimean war in 1854.

13. Foundation for future international organizations/Consolidation of European diplomacy

The congress system laid foundation for the subsequent international organizations that maintained peace after deadly wars. It was the first international organization that was devised for the maintenance of peace. It therefore inspired the rise and existence of international organizations like the League of Nations that maintained peace after the First World War and the L.N.O that maintained peace up to 1970 and beyond. These organizations took lessons from the initiatives and examples of the congress system. Thus, the congress system should be credited for consolidating European diplomacy that had been initiated by the Vienna settlement of 1814-1815.

Weaknesses And Failures Of The Congress System

Added on: 01 Jul 2015

Last Modified on: 01 Jul 2015

Isolation of France/secret diplomacy

Although France was admitted into the congress system, she was not fully trusted! The quadruple powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain) were still suspicious of France and decided to isolate her within the system. Consequently, they secretly renewed the Quadruple alliance that robbed the congress powers of harmonious relationship, which weakened the congress system.

2. Lack of a joint Army

The congress system lacked a joint army to enforce its decisions where negotiations could not work.

King Fredrick William III of Prussia had proposed that an international army be formed and stationed at Brussels to suppress revolutions. This idea was rejected by Castlereagh who argued that it would be interfering in the internal affairs of other states. This disagreement and lack of an army weakened the congress system and left it almost as "a debating club". It left the idea of suppressing revolutions to individual states like France and Austria, which brought more antagonism with other powers most especially Britain.

3. Sea pirates in the Mediterranean Sea

The congressmen failed to handle sea pirates in the Mediterranean Sea yet it was a big obstacle to international trade. At the congress of Aix-Lachapalle, Tsar Alexander I of Russia proposed that a joint military operation on the Mediterranean Sea to stamp out sea pirates be conducted. This was out rightly rejected by Castlereagh who feared the presence of Russian warships in the Mediterranean Sea and considered it as a manifestation of Russian imperialism to dominate the sea. Thus, if the congress powers could fail to agree over such a sensitive matter, one wonders what concert of Europe was guiding European powers in the congress era.

4. Slave Trade

The congress system failed to handle the issue of slave trade. Castlereagh's proposal at Aix-Lachapalle to form a congress navy to monitor and search vessels carrying slaves was rejected by other powers.

They feared that it would give Britain that had the strongest navy, excessive powers of interference given that she was already interfering in the international affairs of other states. With all these suspicions and self-interests, one can conclude that the congress system was a failure.

5. Short Life Span

The congress powers failed to achieve their objective of remaining in a permanent alliance for 20 years. It should be noted that the quadruple powers had pledged to remain in a permanent alliance for a period of 20 years. This turned out to be theoretical than practical because the congress of St. Petersburg crowned the existence of the congress system. Thus, the inability of the congress system to survive beyond 1825 is a clear testimony that it failed to reach its target of 20years.

6. Discrimination of small and weaker states

The congress system learnt nothing and forgot nothing from the Vienna congress. It remained an alliance of the big five (Austria, Russia, Prussia, Britain and France) from its formation in 1818 up to the end. The smaller nations were not part of it. The problems of the smaller states were ignored and in most cases worsened by forcing them to remain under foreign powers. The system ignored the ideas of liberalism and Nationalism that led to instabilities in states like Italy, Germany, Belgium and Spain; this undermined the role of the congress system as an instrument of peace in Europe.

7. Protection of oppressive, dictatorial and exploitative rulers

By defending the Vienna principle of legitimacy, the congress system made people to suffer dictatorship, oppression and exploitation under the so-called legitimate rulers. Those rulers who were restored and protected pursued a policy of revenge on their subjects and became worst than ever before. For example, Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII of Spain who were protected by the Austrian and French armies respectively became more dictatorial against their subjects. It's therefore not a surprise that none of them was on the throne by 1848.

8. The Greek revolt

The congress system failed to peacefully handle the Greek war of independence. 

Tsar Nicholas I's overwhelming decision to assist the Greeks against Turkey made Britain and France to change their attitude and assist the Greeks. It was a calculated move to prevent Russia from acting alone because her unilateral assistance would have made her to dominate the independent state of Greece. This assistance was opposed by Austria and Prussia who supported Turkey in the war. Hence forth, the congress powers resorted to violence other than diplomacy in handling the Greek war of independence, which became a turning point that led to the end of the congress system.

NB. The congresses of Verona and St. Petersburg failed to resolve the question of the Greek war of independence. The issue brought a serious disagreement and exchange of "bad words" that broke the congress system into two i.e. supporters of the Greeks and Turkey.

9. The Spanish Revolution

The congress system failed to diplomatically settle the Spanish revolution. At the congress of Veronna, Tsar Nicholas Ts proposal to send 15,000 Russian troops to suppress the revolution was vetoed/rejected by other powers. This is because it was considered as a manifestation of Russian hidden imperialistic ambition to conquer and dominate Europe. As Russia was being restrained, France sent her troops, crushed the revolution and restored Ferdinand VII to his throne. This ejected Britain out of the congress system and George Canning proclaimed that; "Things are getting back to a wholesome state again. Every nation for itself and God for us all. Thank God, there will be no more congresses"

It should be noted that Britain was afraid that Ferdinand would reclaim the Spanish colonies in

America, which would jeopardize her trade with the colonies. This is why she supported the Monroe Doctrine that prohibited interference on American soil

10. Lack of clear principles and experience

Being the first international organization that was devised to maintain peace, the congress system lacked experience from where to learn lessons. This explains why it was not well structured with a clear program of action. That is why there was no written document on how meetings were to be called, where, when and the protocol to be followed. There was even no fixed chairperson and that is why anyone could call a congress anytime e.g. Ferdinand VII of Spain in 1824 over the revolution which was attended by nobody a part from 'himself.

11. The Monroe doctrine

The congress system failed to challenge the Monroe Doctrine. In 1823 president Monroe of USA supported by Britain issued the famous Monroe doctrine which seriously warned the congress powers against any attempt to help Spain recover her colonies in S. America. Austria, Prussia, France and Russia who had decided to use the congress spirit to help assist Spain to recover her colonies cowardised and thus foiled to challenge the Monroe Doctrine

12. Pre dominance of Metternich and conservatism

The congress system made Metternich and his outdated conservative ideas dominant in European politics. Metternich manipulated the Congress system to promote his conservative (Metternich) system and undermine the forces of liberalism and nationalism. It was opposed by Britain right from Aix-la-Chapalle in 1818 and partly explains why Britain withdrew her membership from the congress system in 1823. It also set in a struggle by the liberals and nationalists against conservatives (supported by Metternich) that led to uprisings in Europe in the 1820's e.g. Spain, Naples, Greece etc. This undermined the political, social and economic development of Europe during the congress era.

13. delayed the unifications of Italy and Germany

Like the Vienna settlement, the congress system is also blamed for delaying the unifications of Italy and Germany. It united the European powers defending the Vienna settlement that had given Austria control over Italians and Germans. It made Austria diplomatically strong and rendered it impossible for Italian and German nationalists to secure foreign assistance. At the Congress of Troppau, Austria, Russia and Prussia signed the Troppau Protocol in which they vowed to suppress revolutions in Europe. It's this that Austria used to suppress the revolution in Naples, hence frustrating the unification of Italy.

14. Selfish interest

The congress system was weakened by selfish national interests of its members. Each congress Power wanted to exploit the congress system to fulfill its own interest and had little concern for the interest of the other powers. For instance, Austria wanted to dominate Italians and Germans, Russia aimed at dominating the remains of Ottoman Empire, Britain wanted more colonies and France wanted to revive her influence in Europe. This explains why there was suspicion, mistrust, jealousy and unnecessary disagreements over sensitive issues like joint army, slave trade, pirates etc.

15. In-balance of power

The congress system is blamed for perpetuating (promoting) in-balance of power in Europe. From 1820, Austria, Prussia and Russia who had signed the Troppau protocol turned the congress system into an authoritative instrument for suppressing revolutions, which was opposed by France and Britain.

This tilted/changed the balance of power against France and Britain, which partly explain why Britain withdrew from the congress system in 1823. Even amongst the signatories of the Troppau protocol, Austria under Metternich exercised much influence over congress affairs than Prussia and Russia. It should be noted that Russia's assistance to rebellions such as the Greeks' was partly a protest to Metternich's domineering role in the congress system. Thus, the congress system failed to maintain the balance of power.

Factors For The Failure/Collapse Of The Congress System

A

By 1830, the congress system had failed to achieve its noble objectives and was already languishing in the dustbin of history. The factors for the downfall of the congress system were too varied and complex. They range from the selfish and divergent interests of the powers to the absence of an agreed principle of political faith and the social developments of a new Europe against conservative forces leave alone the emergence of new and inexperienced leaders.

1. Self interest of the congress powers

The congress system was doomed from the onset due to conflicting aims of its participants. It was a combination of different states with different aims and objectives that became a source of mistrust, suspicion, jealousy and conflicts amongst the powers. This was because each power wanted to satisfy its national interest and refused to sacrifice it for the sake of common interest. Austria wanted to use the congress system to dominate the Italians and Germans and expand her empire, to central Europe.

Prussia wanted to annex Saxony and the Grand Dutchy of war-saw. Russia aimed at dominating the remains of the Ottoman Empire. Britain needed more colonies to promote her trade and France wanted fair treatment and a revival of her influence over Europe. These explains why there were disagreements and lack of consensus over sensitive issues like a joint army, pirates, slave trade, Spanish revolt and colonies and the Greek war of independence. Each power was motivated by selfish interest that dug a political grave for the congress system.

NB. Britain rejected the formation of an army to suppress revolutions because she was a liberal country and wanted to maintain her policy of isolation let alone wasting taxpayer's money and men in suppressing such movements. She also vetoed the proposal to deal with pirates because the pirates feared the union jack and British ships. Other powers reacted by throwing a way British proposals to deal with slave traders because it would give Britain that had the strongest navy excessive powers of interference. Britain again resisted the suppression of Spanish revolution and the restoration of Ferdinand because it would undermine her booming trade in the area.

Russia assisted the Greeks because of the need to dominate the remains of the Ottoman Empire.

Britain saw that Russia's assistance would jeopardize her commercial and strategic interests in the region and decided to join Russia. France also realized that Russia's assistance would jeopardize her religious claims over Greek Christians and decided also to assist the Greeks. Austria and Prussia saw that Russia's intervention would increase her influence in the Balkans and threaten their survival and interest. These forced Prussia and Austria to oppose the Greek war of independence. Thus, self interest scattered the congress powers in different and opposite direction that became a countdown for its downfall.

2. Admission of France (1818)

The admission of France in the congress system was a blessing in disguise that contributed to the collapse of the system. The congress system was partly formed to safeguard against further French aggression and the return of Napoleon to power. The admission of France in 1818 destroyed the possibility of French aggression and the death of Napoleon in 1821 erased the fear of his return to power. These two events undermined the co-operation and unity amongst the allies most especially Britain who decided to concentrate on her own internal problems. Castlereagh made this clear on May 5th 1820 in his "State paper" where he stated that Britain was only committed to preventing the return of Napoleon I or his dynasty to France. Furthermore, France was never fully trusted and was isolated within the congress powers. This robbed the powers of the unity, co-operation and harmony upon which the system was to survive.

3. Principle of intervention

The principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states alienated Britain from the congress system and paved way for its demise. Britain opposed this right from 1818 up to the end of the system, inspite of British opposition, Austria, Prussia and Russia signed the Troppau protocol of 1820 in which they pledged to intervene militarily against revolutions. This drifted Britain apart and Castlereagh branded the protocol "a destitute of common sense". Britain opposed French intervention in Spain and withdrew from the congress system at the congress of Verona. This was the last kick to the downfall of the congress system.

4. The Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine was yet another blow to the existence of the congress system. In Dec 1823, president Monroe of U.S.A proclaimed the doctrine which threatened war against the planned move by the congress powers to restore Spanish colonies in South America. He was supported by George Canning of Britain who was afraid that such a move would undermine British trade with South American colonies. It defeated the principle of intervention and forced Austria, Prussia, France and Russia to back down. Henceforth, the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 created more antagonism between Britain against other congress powers, thus rolling the congress system to its grave.

5. The Vienna Settlement

The Vienna settlement laid a very weak foundation for the congress system that made its collapse a foregone conclusion. The congress system was to maintain the Vienna settlement, which unfortunately had enforced very unrealistic principles. These were for instance, the principles of legitimacy, balance of power and defensive arrangements against the principle of nationalism. It should be stressed that the principle of legitimacy made the Vienna peacemakers to restore some of the worst rulers Europe ever had. This created a viscous cycle of revolts like against Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII of Spain. These revolts created more conflicts and antagonism amongst the congress powers. This is because other powers preferred intervention which was bitterly opposed by Britain. The end result was the end of the congress system.

6. Discrimination against small states

Discrimination against small states was a fundamental, weakness that led to the downfall of the congress system. It was dominated by the "big^ five" at the expense of smaller states yet they would have reduced the differences between the big powers. Consequently, the system failed to capture European public opinion and no wonder that it was branded "a league of despots" for the suppression of revolutions and nationalism in the smaller states. The congress system therefore became a narrow association of the big powers against smaller states which met stiff opposition from the smaller states hence its collapse.

7. Lack of Experience

Inexperience also accounts for the disintegration of the congress system. The system was the first international organization that was designed to maintain peace. The congress powers therefore lacked experience from any previous attempts from which it could have learnt lessons and avoided various weaknesses that made the system to collapse. This partly explains why the congressmen tried to rewind Europe to the pre 1789 order that became a total disaster. It should be noted that the League of Nations and the U.N.O learnt lessons from previous organizations and this partly explains why they existed for so long. The congress system was experimental or on trial and error and no wonder that it collapsed within less than 10 years.

8. Lack of clear principles and protocol

The congress system failed partly because it was a disorganized organization with no clear principles and protocol. There was no memorandum on how meetings were to be called, where, when and the procedure to be followed in such meetings. There was even no fixed chairperson and this explains why anybody could call a congress anytime. Besides, there was no penalty for those who would wish to withdraw and this explains why Britain easily pulled out of the system in 1820.

9. Lack of a joint army and a resolution enforcing organ

The congress system was doomed by its failure to organize a governing body and "a congress peace keeping force" to implement its resolutions. Besides, there was no court of justice that could have punished those who violated the objectives of the system. For instance, France, Britain and Russia who diverted and supported liberal and nationalistic movements like in Greece would have been brought to book. If the court of justice was there, it could have saved the concert of Europe from disintegration through strict enforcement to the norms and principles of the congress system. Similarly, a joint force would have enforced the resolutions of the congress system where diplomacy could not be viable. The absence of a joint force undermined the strength of the congress system and made it more theoretical than practical which accounted for its collapse.

10. The Greek war of Independence.

The Greek war of independence was the last blow to the existence of the congress system. The Greeks revolted demanding for their independence against Turkey. The war became an event amongst others where the divergent interest of the major powers converged and hastened the collapse of the congress system. It divided the congress powers into two i.e. Britain, France and Russia who supported the Greeks and Prussia and Austria who sympathized and hence supported Turkey. In 1827, Russia, Britain and France signed the London treaty that recognized the independence of Greece amidst protest from Austria and Prussia. This gave the congress system that had died in 1825 unceremonial burial.

11. Death of founder members and the rise/role of new men.

The Death of some of the pioneers of the congress system and the rise of new men without parental care for the system was a serious setback for the survival of the system. Castlereagh died a suicidal death in 1822 and was replaced by George Canning. George Canning unlike Castlereagh was too aggressive and uncooperative to the ideas of collective action. He refused to neither attend nor send a representative to the 1823 congress over Spanish colonies and the 1825 congress over the Greek war of independence. This frustrated diplomatic solutions to the revolts and left it for a violent solution that divided the powers. It was the same Canning who withdrew Britain from the congress system in 1825 and embarked on a policy of "every nation for itself and God for us all". This individualistic tendency did not spare the congress system.

In Russia, Tsar Alexander I died inl825 and was replaced by Tsar Nicholas II. Tsar Nicholas II had a more aggressive and expansionist foreign policy over the Balkans. He was too confident in Russia's military might that he felt insulted to be restrained in foreign ventures. Nicholas' imperialistic ambitions made Britain and France to turn round and support liberal movements such as the Greek revolt. This was against the norms and principles of the congress system and betrayed the system to doom.

In France, Charles X succeeded Louis XVHI in 1824, Unlike Louis XVIII, Charles X was pro-British and very often against Metternich. He consistently co-operated with George Canning like in the Greek war that left Metternich isolated and annoyed.

All in all, George Canning, Tsar Nicholas I and Charles X carried the congress system to its final rest because unlike the founders, they had no parental fondness and love for it. They had not participated in its formation and its existence meant little to them. Unlike Metternich, the new leaders were inexperienced and had a narrow/limited knowledge of European affairs prior to and after the congress system.

12. The British policy of Isolationism and non Intervention

Britain was primarily responsible for the downfall of the congress system. She pursued a policy of Isolation (non-interventionist foreign policy). This was to avoid pocket touching matters (unnecessary expenses), loss of British citizens in areas of no interest and parliamentary outcry incase of failures.

These made Britain/Castlereagh to veto important congress revolutions like checking pirates on the Mediterranean Sea and the formation of a joint force right from Aix-Lachapalle in 1818. This was very unfortunate for the congress system because it was Britain who championed the defeat of Napoleon I.

Her role was therefore paramount in the reconstruction of post Napoleonic era and the survival of the congress system thereafter.

Secondly, Britain sympathized and offered moral and logistical support to liberal and nationalistic movements like in Spain, Naples, Greece, German and Italian states. This was against the principles and interest of the congress system. Indeed, the British official policy was made clear by Castlereagh in his lengthy State paper, thus;

……………Britain owed her present dynasty and constitution to an internal revolution. She could not therefore deny to other countries the same

right of changing their form of government (Grant and Temperleys pp/142 - 143).

Britain therefore opposed the idea of suppressing revolutions right from Aix-Lachapalle. This is why she rejected the Troppau protocol which Castlereagh called "a destitute of common sense". This drifted Britain a part from Russia, Austria and Prussia hence the collapse of the congress system.

Thirdly, Britain allied with U.S.A. against Austria, Russia and Prussia over the issue of Spanish colonies.

She overwhelmingly supported the Monroe doctrine against other powers who wanted to intervene over the issue of Spanish colonies. This left the rest of the congress powers hopeless and defeated the principle of intervention.

Fourthly, it was Britain through Canning (the British foreign secretary from 1822) who "killed" the congress system. Britain declined to send a representative to a congress that was called by the Spanish king over the Spanish colonies. She also refused to attend the congress of St. Petersburg that was called by Tsar Nicholas 1 to settle the Greek war of independence. This frustrated Russian's intentions to diplomatically settle the Greek question and gave way for war that divided the powers.

Fifthly, it was Britain who officially withdrew from the congress system in 1823. George Canning was angered by the French intervention in Spain and withdrew British membership of the congress system at the congress of Verona. Thereafter, Britain under Canning resorted to the policy of every nation for itself and God for us all''. This was the actual disintegration of the congress system.

Lastly, Britain had profound hatred and dislike for Russia and Austria. She hated Russia for her imperialism over the Balkans and the Mediterranean Sea, which was a threat to her commercial interest.

She was against Austria because Austria and Metternich had centralized European affairs in their favour.

Canning wanted European affairs to be centralized and settled in London than Vienna or Austria. In other wards Britain wanted to hijack the balance of power to favour her. Therefore, one can safely conclude that Britain's hatred for Russia and Austria robbed the congress powers of any harmonious relationship or mutual co-existence and led to its collapse.