The Mfecane Invasion

Mfecane refer to the lime of trouble" during the reign of Shaka in Zulu kingdom.
Because of his tvrannical leadership many tnbes In Zulu land started massive movements
In research of safer life. More of them moved Northwards and North East of the kmgdom.
The word mfecane originated from Nguni speaking people
The first half of thr' 19th century South Africa was dominated by two great upheavals. The
1st took place among the Bantu speaking people of zulu land and it gave arise to the movernents which affected areas of northern parts 01 South Africa in what is known as in Tanzania and present Zimbabwe. Their was a sudden movement and expansion of the white settlers at the Cape Province known as Great Trek.
Mfecene. as found above meant, lime of trouble when there was a period of terror within Zulu kingdom as a result of Shaka's despotic rule characterized by severe punishments which caused bloodshed among the Zulu people. The Shaka's expansive wars also made his subjects flee for safer life. He forcefully engaged his people in wars against neighboring weak territories for territorial acquisition, raiding cattle etc. it also involved Itself in burning of villages, granaries, assassinating rebellious kings and other atrocities.
The commonest of Shaka's invasions were made to Boers who were on their Journeys northwards from the cape province for the great Trek movements, Swazi Sotho, Zwide and Ndwandwe. As a result of such insecurity people Inside these societies were forced to leave for safer life under the leadership of notable m','" e.g. Mzilikazi who led the Ndebele to central Africa, Zwangendaba and matseko who led the Ngoni movement into East Africa.
Causes of The Mfecane movement.
A number of factors are responsible for this historical crusade in South Africa and these
include;
1. The rise of Shaka and his expansion policy; This was a primary reason for Mfecane movement. He was characterized by despotic threats and insecurity caused by himself to his subjects that made many of them to flee for safer life hence the Mfecane movement. He was politically ambitious and aggressive especially in his foreign policy. He believed in the expansIOn of the Zulu state at {he expense of the neighboring societies. He therefore
organized constant wars of expansion against Pondo, Segu, Mthethwa, Swazi, Zwide, Ndwande and Sotho under his control. The period between 1817-1828 witnessed (\0 lot of atrocities subjected to Zulu people by Shaka. And that's why many historical scholars believe that disintegration was began during the regime of Shaka.
2 Shortage of land and over population; This happened among the Nguni speaking people living between the Drakensberg mountains and the Indian Ocean. Its believed that there was rapid population growth that led to land shortages and land pressure, better farming lands became scarce and there was increased scramble for little food, and inter tribal war- fare doubled during penod of the l~!century hence leading to the movement of people into the East and Central Africa. Nevertheless, this theory stands to be criticized by many scholars as it provides inadequate basis for the Mfecane movement.
3. The subordination of weaker countnes by relatively more powerful ones could provide protection against external forces also explains the causes of Mfecane movement. At the beginning of the 191h century, 3 powerful states began fighting each other before they were dominated by Shaka which resulted mto war. The Ndwandwe and Mthethwa were also constantly engaged in tribal wars, all of which culminated into the Mfecane movement.
4 There was great desire to control the profitable trade. A number of powerful states fought each other in search of trade monopoly with South African coastal societies basically the Portuguese traders. Through these wars powerful societies hoped to acquire modern weapons and sell off their local products e.g. minerals, Ivory and slaves. The situation became tense when Europeans, Arabs and British Europeans joined this coastal trade. Many societies competed more and more leading to political instability hence leading to Mfecane movement.
5 Advance of the Boers: their advance deep into the interior of South Africa caused a further
land shortage particulary in South East of South Africa. It's important to note that the Drakensberg Mountains surrounded fertile plains with different societies who were struggling to control it. The mountains influenced the further expansion of many societies into the interior.
With the increase in population, inter clan and inter tribal warfare intensified. The Boers were determined to control any fertile piece of land in the interior. They fought the Zulu in Natal, the Ndebele and Xhosa societies in South Africa in search of fertile lands to compansate the loss of the Cape Province plains taken by the British settlers. Such wars brought constant suffering of indigenous population and made competition for land more acute that culminated into Mfecane movement.
6. The evolution of the age grade military system; With the Introduction of this military system in the kingdom, many age regiments started training and became professional warriors for Zulu kingdom which made them start a number of expensiv e wars attacking many neighboring societies. As a result of the pride for mtroducuon of this new military system, therefore many neighbonng communities had to flee from their original homesteads for a safer life. In this penod or each state or tribe organized an army for internal stability defence against external aggression and probably for territorial expansion. Such wars resulted into cattle raiding, inter tribal conflicts. hence leading to general political instability that resulted into the Mfecane movement
The Course of Mfecane.
The Ngoni of central and East Africa was part of the large scale movement that came about following the rise of Zulu nation during the time Shaka. They moved Northwards across Mozambique. Angola into East and Central Africa. Their movement was characterized by raids. destruction of property, devastation of villages leading to the Mfecane movement,
Zwangenrlaba led the 1st and largest group out of South Africa The destiny of his group Was in Tanganyika and mainly comprised of Ngoni Ethnicity (Tribe). Before this he was Initially the chief Ngoni tribe under Ndwandwe society. When Shaka defeated and occupied .dwadwe, his subjects felt like moving away for a safer life and they were threatened with financial and despotic leadership of Zwangendaba.
They left their cradleland in 1821. and by 1840 they had temporarily settled among the Tong people in South West Mozambique. Using the unique experience of Zulu kingdom, Zwangendaba's follower- proved quite strong and displaced them from their area. The Ngoni never settled here for a long time. They later moved Northwards capturing, absorbing people into the regiment and recruiting many others for the expansion of the Ngoni areas
Bv 1840. Zwangeduha 's followers entered Ufipa plateau north of Malawi and they made their first settlement in East African on this land The local population was defeated and forced to shift to unfavorable mountainous areas of southern Tanganyika.
About 1884, Zwaugendaba died and his group split into other five smaller ones. After a series of succession disputes, [WO of these groups i.e. Tuta and Gwangana moved northwards into I'anganyika while Mbewa and Quasi Ngoni groups moved into present Zambia and founded new smaller state there. The Tuta Ngoni inside Tanganyika are responsible for amalgamation of many dispersed Nyamwezi chiefdom into one organized loosely centralized Nyamwezi state m need of protection against Ngoni invaders.
In the process they captured Mirambo as a young man- and when he was released, he became a military genius and a statesman who established the Nyamwezi kingdom to its 19th century climax
Meanwhile another group from south Africa under the leadership of Mzilikazi moved northwards across Drakensberg mountains. They first settled in Transvaal republic but due to Zulu and Boer pressure, they were forced to cross River Limpopo and finally
settled In present day Zimbabwe where they founded a famous Ndebele kingdom.
Mzilikazi first clashed with the existing societies such as the Shona but because of Zulu military superiority, he had to dominate them until the coming of 19th century colonialists .
Ndebele kingdom had very many characteristics like the Zulu kingdom of South Africa in
aspects of social, political and economic set up.
Another important group to mention was the Holoholo who migrated to Barotseland on the present day Zambia. ThIS was original Sotho tribe, which lived between Orange and
Vaal rivers in South Africa.
Effects of Mfecane.
Social Effects
It is imperative to note that Mfecane revolution which swept across Bantu South African societies left remarkable effects in central and East African regions. It was a turbulent age and was one of crises that need to be remembered on the 19'h century events Indeed. it constituted a revolution and a crisis as Africans saw many political, social and economic changes as a result of this movement
The Mfecane led to the emergence of strong and well developed states in East and Central Africa characterized by Nguni, imperialism. E.g. the Matebele states in central Africa that ere built by Mzilikazi, Gaza Empire in Mozambique established by Shosangane and some numerous states in Tanganyika, Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. All these states emerged as a direct consequence of Mfecane. In its expansionary movement in search of safe. life where they conquered and dominated the societies they found already settled in East and Central Africa.
Formation of defensive; These were multi-clan and multi-ethnic built mainly to defend themselves against the Zulu invaders. In East Africa these included the transformation of Nyamwezi chiefdoms into one recognized Nyamwezi Empire. In central Tanganyika there was also the Holoholo State. Defensive nation building as technique was brought about by a high degree of social cohesion and loyalty of the followers to their leaders.
There was introduction of new military techniques; new techniques of warfare like the cow -horn attack formation was introduced in the area. This tactic required first to probe the enemy while the main body attacked from the front hence destroying the enemy. Surprise attack was another tactic brought in by Mfecane movement.
Introduction of age regiment systems in the establishment of east and central African societal forces. They were very important as they came to determine the social classification of central African societies especially the Ndebele State. There was introduction of short stabbing spears they found in place.
5. Led to the formation of new strong central governments similar to the arrangements of Zulu government. The use of age regiments that cut cross local differences enhanced the growth of loyally to central government under strong kings, the successors of Mzilikazi in Ndebele kingdom. They maintained one recognized king helped by military and provincial Induna.
6. The social values of the Zulu origin were adopted by the people of East and Central Africa. All people who were absorbed along the way referred to ,themselves as full members of the N goni migrating group. As they exchanged with the Ngoni people in the movernenr For e xamplc there was adoption of the language such as the Sendebele language by the Ndebele people in central Africa. In central Tanganyika the Ngoni spread Nguni dialect of Khumalo language in Tanganyika.
7, Other than commonality in speech, other aspects like intermarriages enhanced assimilation and social cohesion between the Mfecane invaders and settled east and Central African societies eg central Tanganyika, the Hehe and Mbuga intermarried with the central societies. Similarly In Mozambique the Mosheshoe immigrant intermarried with the people they stayed with
8. There were great wars of aggression that obviously led to the death of many people in Addition to many lives of animals and considerable amount of property. In South Africa, Other groups of people who didn’t have strong leadership to lead them into a movement in search of safer life were later engulfed (Swallowed up) by the Zulu kingdom or they became refugees They were finally absorbed by other strong states or became slaves of the white man
9. Mfecane resulted into increased slave trade activities; This was because the Ndebele and Ngoni took the captives of War as slaves, Moreover as a result of many developing areas these affected communities became politicaly weak and as a result, East African coastal traders easily raided them. Beside, this. once they settled especially in East Africa they formed themselves Into formidable gangs known as Mviti who captured people and sold them into slavery.
I 0, Many wars fought throughout the region from South Africa upwards to South of Lake Victoria resulted into great instability, Chaos and general panic Consequently, no community could think of cultivation which resulted into general decline in agriculture producuon and Iamme became inevitable In many areas where the Mfecane movement passed.
11 The Mfecane movement poisoned the interstate relationship which made it difficult for the Africans to organize themselves and fight against the whites which resulted into colonization of African continent e.g. In South Tanganyika, the Hehe, Sangu, Pendo and Pogoro were not co-operative with the Ngoni who settled among them hence leading to the defeat to Maji Maji rebellion in 1905-1907 by the Germans
Disruption of long distance trade routes; E.g. the Swahili Arab Caravans between port Kilwa and Lake Malawi, the areas between Tabora and Ujiji were greatly disturbed by Ngoni raids between 1830-1845 which contributed to the decline of long distance trade in East Africa.
Revision questions.
Assess the consequences of the Mfecane invasion in East and Central Africa in the 2nd half of the 19th century.
Discuss the causes and effects of Ngoni migration into east and Central Africa by the middle of 19th century.
To what extent was Mfecane invasion responsible for the changes in East Africa in the 19th Century period.
"Mfecane invasion was a turning point in the history of East and Central Africa?" Discuss.