ROLE OF EUROPEAN POWERS IN THE OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Each and every power that participated in the war should be held responsible although the degree of responsibility differs. In other words, the responsibility varies from country to country based on the magnitude of the blame; It should be noted that much as countries like Italy, Japan, USA, Bulgaria and Turkey participated in the First World War, they cannot be held responsible for the outbreak of the war.
This is because they joined the war later when it had already started i.e. "broken off'. Thus, with or without them the First World War would still have been an important event in the history of Europe and indeed the whole world.
1. GERMANY
By article 231 of the war guilt clause in the Versailles peace treaty, Germany was solely blamed for causing World War I. It was unanimously agreed that Germany alone was responsible for the outbreak of World War I and that is why article 232 subjected her to impossible reparation of 6,600m pounds.
Although these were very unrealistic, Germany still shares the greatest responsibility in causing and sustaining World War I in as far as she;
i) Started the alliance system in an attempt to isolate France in European politics. After Bismarck, Kaiser William II misused the alliance system as a tool to raise Germany above other powers. This prompted the formation of triple entente, which became antagonistic with the triple alliance leading to World War I.
ii) It was again Germany that started the arms and naval race which was followed by other powers. This was to prepare for a French war of revenge, dominate other powers and challenge British naval supremacy. The sophisticated weapons created more suspicion, hatred, recklessness and courage leading to the First World War.
iii) In the colonial field, Germany acquired territories adjacent to Britain that was very provocative. For instance, when Britain acquired Uganda and Kenya, Germany moved to Tanganyika. When Britain declared a protectorate over Ivory Coast and Sierra Leone, Germany annexed Togo and Cameroon.
Germany also encouraged colonial conflicts between France and other powers purposely to isolate France. Kaiser William II himself irritated Britain when he congratulated Paul Kruger for his success in the Jameson raid of 1894. This worsened the already hostile relationship between Britain and Germany and partly explains why Britain declared war on Germany in 1914.
iv) In pursuit of Germany's imperialism in the near east, Germany in 1913 started building the Berlin-Baghdad railway. She continued to claim exclusive rights to train and command the Turkish army against the British claim of similar rights over the navy and foreign policy. This created more tension in the east and made it a storm centre for the explosion of World War I.
v) Germany under Kaiser William II shares a blame for militarism and chauvinism. Kaiser William 11 believed in the policy of "world power or downfall". The arrogance and superiority complex of the Germans increased the hostility between Germany and other races leading to World War I.
vi) The unification of Germany in 1871 distorted the balance of power in Europe and stimulated nationalism throughout Europe. In 1871, Prussia inflicted a humiliating defeat on France and completed the unification of Germany. France was subjected to a heavy war indemnity of 5 billion Francs, an army of occupation and was forced out of her two mineral rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The humiliations and the losses from the Franco-Prussian war created bitter enmity between Germany and France and led to World War I.
NB. It has been argued that if Germany had not interfered in Morocco, France might have found some material compensation for the loss of Alsace and Lorraine and would have probably forgotten to revenge against Germany. However, the German interference in Morocco added the bitterness between the two countries.
vii) Germany stands in the dock of history in relation to World War I for supporting Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the annoyance of Serbia and Russia. This strengthened Austria's imperialism in Serbia and triggered off Serbian nationalism leading to the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and World War 1
viii) Germany shares the guilt of World War I for issuing a blank cheque to Austria, which increased Austria's recklessness towards Serbia after the Sarajevo incident. This made Austria to issue the unrealistic ultimatum and declare war on Serbia that became a prelude to World War I.
ix) Germany is blamed for issuing an unnecessary ultimatum to Russia. In the after math of Austria's declaration of war on Serbia, Russia started a general mobilization and Germany sent an ultimatum demanding for her demobilization, which prompted Germany to declare war on her. Germany is therefore blamed for issuing an ultimatum on her own terms rather than seeking the opinion of other powers in dealing with Russian's mobilization. The ultimatum could have possibly humbled Russia if it was a joint declaration by the big powers of Europe i.e. Germany, France, Russia and Austria. That it failed to humble Russia was because it was a German declaration that posed no serious threat to Russia.
x) After the Sarajevo assassination, it was Germany that magnified the Austro-Serbian conflict into a World War. She declared war on Russia, France and Belgium. The attack on Belgium violated the London treaty of 1839, which forced Britain and other powers to declare war on her.
NB. After Germany stationing her troops in Belgium in readiness for attack, France and Britain demanded that the German troops should be withdrawn but the Germans did not respond, neither they send a reply. This forced Britain to join the war against Germany.
2. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
i) Austria's imperialism in the Balkans is what sparked off World War I. The Berlin conference of 1878 gave her the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina merely to administer and not to annex them.
However, Austria annexed the two provinces in 1808. This brought forth bitter protest from Serbia and Russia leading to the assassination of Ferdinand and World War I. It also explains why Russia mobilized in support of Serbia against Austria.
ii) Austria should be blamed for her recklessness towards Serbia through the unrealistic ultimatum.
Austria had long-term intention to fight Serbia but lacked an excuse. She purposely issued the ultimatum with stringent conditions knowing that the terms would be rejected by Serbia and that would justify war with Serbia. It's even on record that the Austrian cabinet debated and declared war on Serbia on 14^ July 1914, before the ultimatum was dispatched.
iii) Austria is also to blame for violating the territorial and political integrity of Serbia. She declared war on Serbia even after Baron Von Wiesner the then Austria's ambassador to Belgrade (Serbia) reported that there was no conclusive evidence of Serbia's involvement in the Sarajevo assassination. Had Austria not declared war on Serbia; possibly other powers like Russia would have no reason to mobilize their troops and the timing of the war would have been different.
iv) Austria also got involved in the arms race and was one of the most militaristic nations by 1914. This increased her imperialistic ambitions in the Balkans, which clashed with Serbian nationalism to spark off World War I.
v) She had a very strong solidarity with Germany and was the closest to Germany than Italy and Russia in the triple alliance and Dreikaiserband respectively. This created more confidence in Germany and made her the most aggressive nation prior to 1914. Had Austria abandoned Germany like Italy and Russia did, Germany would not have been so reckless to declare war on Russia and the Austro-Serbian conflict would have remained a local affair between Austria and Serbia.
vi) Austria- Hungary is blamed for organizing the visit of Franz- Ferdinand and his wife at a time when the diplomatic relations between her and Serbia was at its lowest (worst) level. On 28th June 1914, Austrian authorities organized the royal visit that boomeranged and caused war when the royal couple was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist, Princip. Austrian authorities are therefore blamed for provoking Serbia by the visit because they were fully aware of the Serbian hostility towards Austria.
The poor relations between the two nations suggest that the Sarajevo assassination could not be accidental but an expected event that was ignored by Austria's lack of fore sight.
vii) Austria Hungary is held responsible for the outbreak of the First World War for internationalizing her conflict with Serbia. After the Sarajevo double murder, Austria rejected Serbia's demand to refer the third ultimatum for arbitration (Settlement) by the international court of Justice at The Hague. Emperor Joseph II of Austria instead consulted Kaiser William II of Germany, which dragged Germany with all her aggression into the conflict. Austria is also blamed for accepting Germany's advice to declare war on Serbia.
ix) Austria's poor diplomatic relations with Russia make her accountable for the outbreak of the First World War. Austria antagonized Russia by opposing her imperialism in the Balkans. In 1877, Russia defeated Turkey and forced her to sign the treaty of Sanstefano in which the big Bulgaria was created.
Austria allied with Britain and threatened war against Russia for her illegal creation of the big Bulgaria at the Berlin congress of 1878. Austria stood against the creation of the big Bulgaria and it was dissected into three i.e. reduced in size. . After the Berlin congress of 1878, Austria intensified her imperial designs in the Balkans that led to further conflicts with Russia. In 1S79, Austria formed the dual alliance with Germany against Russia and France. Austria's activities threatened Russia's interest and dragged her into an alliance with France i.e. France Russian alliance of 1894. This set the pace for the formation of the triple entente in 1907, which caused more antagonism and tension that led to world war l by 1914.
3. SERBIA
i) Serbia shares the guilt of World War l for engineering conflict in an economically, politically and strategically located Balkan region. In 1912, she mobilized Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece to form the Balkan league. She used the league to fight Turkey and occupy her territories in Europe. She also fought and defeated Bulgaria in 1913, which increased her influence in the Balkans to the disappointment of Austria. Generally, Serbia contributed greatly to the Balkan wars of 1911 – 1913 during which she emerged as a leader of the Slav speaking race. This attracted the hostility of other powers particularly Germany, Austria and Turkey to defend their political, economic and strategic interest leading to the First World War.
ii) Serbian nationalism was too ambitious to guarantee peace in Europe. Serbian nationalism clashed with Austria's imperialism leading to the Sarajevo assassination and the First World War. The assassin of Franz Ferdinand and his wife was a member of the Great Serbian movement, which was against Austrian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Whether Serbian government was responsible for the murder or not is still a subject of dispute but Serbia's failure to suppress the activities of the greater Serbian movement makes her politically responsible for the assassination.
iii) It was Serbia that provided Austria with an excuse to declare war by refusing to comply with the 3rd term of the July 23rd ultimatum. She rejected the third term of the ultimatum that demanded for the intervention of Austrian officials in the investigation of the Sarajevo double murder. This provided Austria with a convenient pretext to declare war on her. Had Serbia humbled herself to accept all the terms of the ultimatum and risked her independence, the world would possibly have been spared from the great war of 1914-1918. She also wanted war because before sending her reply to the ultimatum, she had ordered for a general mobilization NB. This was before Austria declared war.
iv) Serbia is also blamed for being a close ally of the Triple entente that was antagonistic to the triple alliance. She was also overwhelmed with confidence that she recklessly pursued iier ambitions of uniting all the Slavs in the Balkans. It intensified conflict between her on one hand against Austria and Germany on the other hand. This created more tension in Germany and Austria that made them determined to fight to destroy Serbia after the Sarajevo assassination .as a way of breaking the solidarity of the triple entente alliance. It should be argued that Serbia's aggressive and arrogant attitude partly made Germany to support Austria against her.
v) Serbia's aggressive and arrogant attitude towards Austria and Germany created more tension that led to the outbreak of the First World War. This partly made Austria to issue the unrealistic ultimatum and declare war against her in 1914.
vi) Serbia is also blamed for promoting anti Austrian activities and terrorist movements like the union, death and Black Hand society. Serbia started sponsoring these movements to sabotage Austrian rule after her annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in! 808. It was these terrorist movements that masterminded the assassination of Franz Ferdinand with his wife and sparked off the First World War.
vii) Lastly, Serbia is blamed for magnifying her conflict with Austria by appealing for Russian support.
After the Sarajevo assassination, Serbia called for Russian support against Austria. This scared Austria and contributed to her declaration of war on Serbia. Serbia's appeal to Russia also explains why Russia mobilized in support of her in the aftermath of Sarajevo double murder It was also Russia's mobilization that prompted Germany to declare war on her. One can therefore argue that if Serbia had not appealed for Russian support, Russia could possibly not have mobilized her troops and Germany would not have found a convenient pretext to declare war on her (Russia).
4. RUSSIA
i) Russia shares the blame for supporting Balkan nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Her support of Pan Slavism led to the Balkan wars of 1878 and those of 1912 - 1913. The success of Slav nationalism in Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece stimulated greater nationalism, which undermined the existence of the Austrian Empire and even Germany. That Austria declared war on Serbia was because Serbian nationalism supported by Russia threatened her existence and the same explains why Germany declared war on Russia.
ii) It was Russia's support to Serbian nationalism that intensified Serbia's recklessness leading to the assassination of Prince Ferdinand and his wife that sparked off war in 1914.
iii) Even after the assassination, it was Russia's support to Serbia that partly made her defiant to Austria's demands. The Russian foreign minister Sazanov told the Serbian ambassador in Russia that; Russia would in no circumstances permit Austrian aggression against Serbia. This is what encouraged Serbia to reject Austria's ultimatum in full. Otherwise, Serbia in her relatively weaker position compared to Austria would not have dared take such a bold stand against Austria.
iv) Russia's interference in Serbian affairs with a claim to be the rightful protector of Slav population and orthodox Christians in the Balkans was rejected by other powers. Although this is justifiable to some extent, it carried more of Russia's hidden imperial, economic and strategic motives than true religious and ethnic aims. This attracted the attention of other powers particularly Germany, Turkey and Austria making it impossible to localize any conflict such as the Austro-Serbian conflict.
v) Russia made Germany to declare war on her. She ordered for general mobilization on 23rd July 1914 and refused to accept Germany's ultimatum to demobilize. This forced Germany to declare war on her as the only alternative. According to Professor Fay:
"It was primarily Russia's general mobilization when Germany was trying to bring
Austria to a settlement which precipitated the final catastrophe, causing Germany to mobilize and declare war"
vi) Russia's expansionist policy in the Balkans and the desire to check Germany's advance to the east made her to get entangled in the arms race and militarism. This was to challenge Germany's military might amongst others, which forced Germany to declare war on her. Actually, Russia's mobilization was not just to assist Serbia against Austria but target fully mobilized for Germany.
vii) Russia's quitting of the Dreikaisabund in 1878 made it impossible for alliance system to be an instrument of peace. After leaving Germany's camp, she joined the French camp (Triple entente) yet France was Germany's number one enemy. This put Germany on tension, incited her to prepare for war and forced her to declare war on her (Russia) and France as well.
BRITAIN
i) She shares the war guilt for being the most influential member of the triple entente that was antagonistic to the triple alliance led by Germany. Britain made separate treaties with Japan, France and Russia and consolidated them in the triple entente of 1907. This threatened Germany and made her to prepare for war and that is why she fought France, Britain, Russia and Japan.
ii) Britain is accused for causing World War I due to her international jealousy and self-seeking ambitions.
She was the champion of colonialism, enjoyed monopoly but never wanted other powers to challenge her status as the workshop of Europe. This accounts for imperialism and colonial economic conflicts especially with the new Germany that precipitated war.
iii) Britain also protested the Berlin-Baghdad railway that aimed at increasing German trade in the east to the extent of encouraging Russia in the Balkans from 1908, which had not been the case before. She wanted to use Russia to block Germany's advance, which only brought war.
iv) By 1914, Britain had built a huge and strong naval force but still resented any other power's attempts to do so, especially Germany. When Germany tried to challenge her naval superiority, she began modernizing and speeding up naval and arms manufacture that led to the arms race. This turned European balance of power into a balance of terror to cause the First World War.
v) Britain stands in the dock of history in as far as she fought to defend her self-interest in Belgium. She had a naval base in Belgium from where she controlled the eastern waters. This is what made her to champion Belgium independence and neutrality in 1839. Thus, the British declaration of war based on the violation of London treaty of 1839 was a mere camouflage of protecting her naval base against the threats from German troops in Belgium.
vi) Britain's refusal to settle the eastern question peacefully by partitioning the Ottoman Empire made it to be a historical centre of European conflicts that developed into World War I. If Britain had accepted the Russian policy of dividing up Turkey as early as 19th century, the Balkan wars of 1911-1913 would have been minimized and World War I would have started from elsewhere not from the Balkans.
vii) The Anti German feelings and propaganda created by the British press makes Britain responsible for the First World War. The London Times exaggerated war threats by Germany after the Sarajevo assassination and turned public opinion against Germany. This encouraged Austria to declare war on Serbia and Russia to mobilize for war at the same time. The British press propaganda also influenced the government to declare war on Germany on 4th August 1914.
FRANCE
a) France is blamed for her desire to revenge against Germany for the humiliations and losses of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. In 1871, Prussia defeated France and subjected her to a heavy war indemnity of5billion Francs, an army of occupation and snatched her two mineral rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. After 1871, France had a burning desire not only to recover Alsace and Lorraine but also to revenge against Germany and restore her national pride and prestige as a great power.
Public opinion favoured war and a statue symbolizing revenge was erected at Strasbourg city. A revengist movement led by opposition politician General Boulanger advocated for a war of revenge against Germany. This made Otto Von Bismarck of Germany to take a precautionary measure of starting alliance system and arms race to isolate France and defend Germany. Declaration of war against France on 3rd Aug 1914 was influenced by the need to suppress her spirit of revenge.
b) Although France fought a defensive war, there is evidence that she was not willing to be neutral in the Austro-Serbian war. In the aftermath of Austria's declaration of war against Serbia, Kaiser William 11 of Germany demanded France to state her position in the war. However, President Point care declined to guarantee the neutrality of France, which forced Germany to declare war on her. It must be noted that France's refusal to guarantee her neutrality was partly influenced by her desire to revenge against Germany and repossess her mineralized provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
c) France contributed directly and indirectly to alliance system that led to the outbreak of World War 1. Indirectly, her desire to revenge the losses of the Franco-Prussian war is what primarily made Bismarck to form the Dreikaiserbund (1873), Dual entente (1879) and triple alliance (1882) i.e. to isolate her and frustrate her desire to revenge against Germany. Directly, France initiated alliances against Germany. In
1894, she allied with Russia (Franco-Russian alliance). In 1904, she allied with Britain (Dual Entente) and in 1907; Russia joined the Dual Entente to form the Triple Entente. These alliances divided Europe into two hostile and antagonistic camps leading to the collapse of diplomacy and explosion of the First World War.
d) France was also entangled/ involved in militarism, naval, and arms race. After 1871, France started rearming herself with sophisticated weapons, embarking on conscription and improving her naval capacity as a move to launch a successful war of revenge against Germany. She also ventured in colonial acquisition and adopted the policy of assimilation in her colonies in order to get more manpower to fight Germany. Radical opposition politicians like General Boulanger became more popular because of their advocacy for a revenge war against Germany. All these created fear suspicion, Jealousy and panic in Germany that calumniated into the outbreak of the First World War by 1914.
e) France is also blamed for colonial rivalry and conflict that created tension and war fever by 1914.
She clashed with Germany twice for the control of morocco in 1906 and 1911 i.e. The Tangier incident, 1905 (the 1stMoroccan crisis) and the Agadir crisis, 1911 (the second Moroccan crisis). Although these crises were settled diplomatically, Germany was left with a spirit of revenge, which she accomplished by attacking France in 1914.
f) France assured Russia of support in the Austro-Serbian conflict, which made it difficult to localize the issue. The French President Poincare visited Russia from 20th July to 23rd July 1914 and promised French support to Russia against Austria. To quote him, Serbia has very warm friends in the Russian people and Russia has an ally, France. This is what morale boosted Russia to mobilize for war after Austria declaring war on Serbia.
g) However, in comparison to other powers, France takes the least responsibility for the outbreak of the First World War. This is because she fought a defensive war. Although she had the desire to revenge, she perused it with reasonable patience and never went for war over Alsace and Lorraine as an immediate reason. When Austria attacked France, Germany gave France a limited time to state her position and when France declined, Germany declared war on her, marched and stationed her troops in Belgium in readiness to invade France. France therefore had no other alternative other than to mobilize and defend herself, there by sharing a lesser blame.