Coenzymes There are other groups that contribute to the reactivity of enzymes beside amino acid

 -
residues.
These groups are called cofactors - chemicals required by apoenzymes (inactive) to become
holoenzymes (active).
There are two types of cofactors:
1) essential ions - metal ions -inorganic
2) coenzymes - organic molecules that act as group-transfer reagents (accept or
donate groups)- can also be H+ and/or e-
Both provide reactive groups not found on a.a. side chains.
Coenzymes can be either cosubstrates (loosely bound to enzyme; is altered, then
regenerated) or prosthetic groups (tightly bound to enzyme).
Coenzymes can be classified by their source:
1) metabolite coenzymes
synthesized by common metabolites
include nucleoside triphosphates
most abundant is ATP, but also include uridine diphosphate glucose (UDPglucose)
and S-adenosylmethionine
ATP can donate all of its three phosphoryl groups in group-transfer
reactions
S-adenosylmethionine can donate its methyl group in biosynthetic reactions.
UDP-glucose is a source of glucose for synthesis of glycogen in animals and
starch in plants.
2) vitamin-derived coenzymes
Vitamins are required for coenzyme synthesis and must be supplied in the
diet
Lack of particular vitamins causes disease
There are two catagories of vitamins:
1) water-soluble - B vitamins and vit. C
required daily in diet
excess excreted in urine
2) lipid-soluble - vitamins A, D, E, K
Intake must be limited
Stored in fat
B vitamins and their coenzymes
Niacin (nicotinic acid) --> nicotinamide -->
Get niacin in enriched cereals, meat, legumes.
2
NAD+ and NADP+ are the coenzymes (cosubstrates).
NAD + consists of 2 5’ribonucleotides (AMP and nicotinamide monomucleotide) joined by a
phosphoanhydride linkage.
For NADP+, have a phosphoryl group on 2’-oxygen.
Both coenzymes act as cosubstrates for dehydrogenases --> catalyze the
oxidation of substrates by transfer of 2e- and 1H+ ---> NADH and NADPH.
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
Coenzymes are flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).
Riboflavin found in milk, whole grains, liver.
The coenzymes serve as prosthetic groups involved in 1e- or 2e- transfers.
FAD + 2e- + 2H+ ---> FADH2
FMN + 2e- + 2H+ --> FMNH2
Enzymes that require FAD or FMN are called flavoenzymes or flavoproteins.
Can actually donate 1 or 2 e- at a time --> form partially oxidized compound when only 1e- is
donated --> relatively stable.
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
Structure: pyrimidine ring and positively charged thiazolium ring.
Found in husks of rice and other cereals, liver, meat, particularly pork.
Deficiency in thiamine causes beriberi - extensive nervous system and circulatory system
damage, muscle wasting, edema.
Coenzyme form is thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) - synthesized by transfer of
pyrophosphoryl group from ATP via thiamine pyrophosphate synthetase.
Used primarily in decarboxylases as a coenzyme.
Vitamin B6 family
pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine are the vitamins.
Act as prosthetic groups.
Formed by the following reaction:
pyridoxine + ATP --> pyridoxine 5’phosphate --> pyrodoxal 5’ phosphate (PLP).
Lack of B6 results in defects in protein metabolism.
3
PLP found in enzymes that catalyze reactions involving amino acids, e.g. isomerizations,
decarboxylations, R-group removal or replacements.
Most frequent reaction is a transamination, where the a-amino group of a.a. is transferred
to carbonyl group of a-keto acid --> new a.a. made or is excreted.
PLP binds covalently with Lys residue in active site --> keeps PLP from running away.
Biotin
Synthesized by intestinal bacteria.
Prosthetic coenzyme is called biocytin - covalently linked to Lys residue in active site.
Involved in carboxyl group transfer reactions and ATP-dependent carboxylations.
E.g. pyruvate carboxylase
pyruvate + HCO3
- ---> oxaloacetate
Binds to HCO3
- and acts as a CO2 carrier (Figure 7-20).
Folic Acid or Folate
Found in green leafy vegetables, liver, yeast.
Coenzyme form is tetrahydrofolate.
Used by enzymes that transfer 1-C units as methyl groups (CH3
-).
Another folate coenzyme is tetrahydrobiopterin - used in hydroxylases.
Pantothenic Acid
Used in coenzyme A formation.
Reactive center is -SH group
Key in all acyl-group transfers
Coenzyme form is phosphopantethine - added to serine residue of protein --> acyl carrier
protein (ACP) --> important in fatty acid synthesis.
4
Vitamin B12 or cobalamin
Found in organ meat (kidney and liver).
It is a prosthetic coenzyme.
Ring structure similar to heme, with cobalt atom in center.
Involved in molecular rearrangements.
Deficiency in B12 results in pernicious anemia (decreased production of blood cells from
bone marrow).
Vitamin C or ascorbic acid
Found in fresh fruit and vegetables.
Participates in hydroxylation reactions, e.g. collagen synthesis.
Deficiency causes scurvy.
LIPID VITAMINS
Vitamin A or retinol
Is a 20 carbon lipid molecule.
Found in carrots, yellow vegetables, liver, egg yolk, milk products.
-carotene ---> vitamin A
Exists in three forms:
1) retinol and 2) retinoic acid - binds to intracellular protein receptors -->
regulates gene expression
2) retinal - prosthetic group of rhodopsin
Vitamin D
Exists as several lipids;
1) D3 - made in skin exposed to sunlight.
2) D2 - additive in fortified milk
Deficiency causes rickets in children or osteomalacia in adults --> insufficient Ca
phosphate deposition in bone.
5
Vitamin E or -tocopherol
Is an antioxidant that scavenges free radicals.
Vitamin K or phylloquinone
Found in plants.
Required for synthesis of proteins involved in blood coagulation.
Ubiquinone or coenzyme Q
Ring with hydrophobic tail --> inserted into membranes.
Transports e- between enzyme complexes in inner mitochondrial membrane.
Related molecule is plastiquinone - found in thylacoid membrane of chloroplasts.
Cytochromes
Hemo-containing protein coenzyme Fe3+ <--> Fe2+.
Classified as a, b, c based on absorption spectra.
Transfers e-.