1. THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1821-1832

The Greek war of independence was the first phase of the Eastern Question that started in 1821 up to 1832. The Greeks were forcefully conquered and incorporated in the Turkish Empire during the Century. This deprived the Greeks of their former position and privileges hitherto enjoyed in Europe and the World at large. The Greeks were forced to be under Turkish Moslem administrators. In spite of the privileges the Greeks enjoyed in the empire such as freedom of education and commerce, the Greeks rose up demanding for greater freedom and independence. The rebellion was therefore a nationalistic movement by the Greeks against Turkey in which religion was used as a tool of resistance against the Moslem Turks. It was due to political, economic, social and religious factors within and outside Greece.
CAUSES
1. The growth of Greek nationalism for independence was primarily responsible for the Greek revolt. The Turks had forcefully conquered the Greeks in the 14th century and the Greeks remained discontented longing for a day when they would liberate themselves from Turkish domination. Although the Greeks had much privileges and favours compared to other subjects within the Turkish Empire, they considered such concessions (privileges) as an appeasement that was intended to frustrate their attempt to regain their independence When peaceful means could not bring forth their independence, the Greeks resorted to violence hence the Greek war of revolt.
2. Libralism was also responsible for the outbreak of the revolution in Greece. The Turks who conquered the Greeks in the 14th century denied them basic rights and fundamental political, economic and social freedoms. Press freedom was violated by forbidding publication of newspapers. Other basic rights like freedom of the speech, association and movement were seriously restricted. This provided a long term disgruntlement that was used by Greek liberals and nationalists like and mobilize the Greeks for a revolution against the Turks.
3. The arrogance and superiority complex of the Ottoman administrators towards the Greeks forced the Greeks into the revolution. The Greeks bated the Turks for abusing them as an inferior race because they were conquered and calling them infidels because they were Christians. This made the Greeks who believed historically that they were a superior race and the mother of civilization to rise up for their freedom.
4. Taxation was yet another burning issue amongst the Greeks that caused the revolt. The Greeks were subjected to land tax and a tax on commerce which reduced their profit margins. They were also forced to living within the Turkish Empire. Although these taxes were not exorbitant, the Greeks rejected them because the money was swindled by corrupt Turkish officials and very little was used to provide basic services. Besides, the tax defaulters were heavily punished to the extent of death, which arose the Greek concern for independence.
5. A sick man of Europe gave the Greeks the opportunity to rebel and regain their independence. Turkey had conquered the Greeks in the 14"^ Century but when her military and political control weakened in the 19"^ Century, the Greeks saw no reason of remaining under Turkish foreign domination. Besides, the Greeks had acquired naval supremacy and dominated the Ottoman navy.
It was this naval superiority over their masters that encouraged the Greeks to face the Turks in the war of independence.
6. The success of the French revolution of 1789 and the spread of the French revolutionary ideas to Western Europe also inspired the Greeks to revolt. Revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity and nationalism were popularized throughout Europe by radical revolutionaries during the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. These revolutionary ideas were used by Greek nationalists to mobilize the Greeks to fight for their independence.
7. Influence of the Serbian revolt also inspired the Greeks to revolt by 1821. In 1804, the Serbians started a revolt against Turkey in demand for their independence. By 1817, they had successfully regained their independence under the leadership of Milosh from the obrenovitch ruling dynasty. This weakened Turkey's control of her subjects and provided a practical example for the Greeks of how to regain their independence. The Serbian success was used fey Greek patriots and nationalists to mobilize the Greeks to begin the rebellion by 1821.
8. Other rebellions and violent events within the Ottoman Empire also contributed to the outbreak of the Greek revolt. Sultans Mehemet Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Jenina had by 1821 revolted against Turkey and declared their independence. Mehemet Ali had declared himself Pasha of Egypt, conquered Sudan and Arabia. Ali Pasha had created his own independent state of Albania by amalgamating several states around Adriatic Sea. The activities and successes of Sultans Mehemet Ali and Ali Pasha weakened Ottoman Empire and morale boosted the Greeks to revolt and regain their independence.
9. The role of European powers was yet another instrumental factor in the Greek quest for independence.
In the past, Britain and France had tried to restrain Russia from inciting and assisting the Greeks but they turned round and started supporting the Greeks when they realized that Russia could not stop assisting the Greeks. Russia had religious interest of protecting fellow orthodox Greek Christians who were suffering persecution from the Turks. She also had political ambitions to have a lion’s share from the crumbling Ottoman Empire. Russia had employed Capodistrious as her foreign minister and H5q5slanti as her army officer and used them to form the Heterophilika (Society of Friends) that began the revolt in 1821.
10. The weakness of the congress system encouraged the Greeks to revolt against Turkey. The congress system was established to maintain peace against the threatening forces of liberalism and nationalism.
However, by 1821 disagreement between the members had made it impossible to adopt a common policy against revolutions, which greatly threatened European peace. The Greeks were thus motivated by differences amongst the congress powers to launch a nationalistic war of independence against Turkey by 1821
11. Religious difference between the Greeks and the Turks also, contributed to the revolt. The Greeks were Christians and the Turks were Muslims, most of them were radicals. The Turks apart from under looking and discriminating Christians embarked on persecutions. This is why the 1822 Morean revolt was mobilized by a Bishop. The Turks heavy massacres of Christians in Morea, Chios, the hanging of Greek Orthodox patriarch and two bishops outside their Church on Easter Sunday aggravated the revolt. It attracted the sympathy and intervention of Christian powers like Russia, France and Britain who supported the Greeks in their movement for total liberty and independence.
12. The ancient culture and glory of the Greeks made them to develop a superiority complex that inspired them to revolt against the Turks. The Greeks were a highly educated and well-known people. They were the ones "who started Olympics, Arithmetic's and Civilization. Philosophers like Koreas emphasized that the Greeks were descendants of ancient Greece and inheritors of a great civilization. This provoked the Greek concern for independence. Besides, Greek writers like Constantine, Regas and Byron emphasized the Greek history i.e. how the Greeks were mothers of world knowledge and civilization and how they were unfairly brought under inferior Turks due to historical accident. This consolidated the Greeks desire for independence and made them to start the war in 1821.
13. The evolution of a common Greek language in the 19th century also contributed to the outbreak of the Greek revolt. By 1821, Greek language had evolved into a single dialect and was popularity used by the Greeks. The new language integrated local vocabularies and broke down differences that existed between the Greek dialects. Patriotic and nationalistic songs, poems, drama and proverbs in Greek language were very popular amongst the Greeks. These consolidated the spirit of nationalism and patriotism that helped to bind /unite the Greeks to fight for their independence. The common language that evolved was used by Greek nationalists to sensitize the Greeks against Turkey's exploitation and oppression and mobilization for the revolt by 1821.
14. The privileges and prosperity of Greeks gave a stimulus to the revolt. The Greeks accumulated a lot of wealth from trade which led to the emergence of a powerful middle class who formed and financed the Heterophilika movement. The Greeks were also educated and some of them were holding sensitive positions in the army. For instance, Capodistrious was the Russian foreign minister and Hypslanti the leader of the Heterophilika was the Russian army officer. They used their political and military experiences in Russia to champion the Greek war of rebellion against the Turks. In Greece, some Greek children who were conscripted in the army, got promotion and experiences that were used for the revolt.
For example, the governors of Walachia and Moldavia were Greeks who used their positions to trigger the rebellion.
15. The formation of Heterophilika society (Society of Friends) was also responsible for the outbreak of the Greek war of independence. In 1814, Heterophilika, a secret society was formed by nationalistic Greeks at Oddessa to mobilize the Greeks to fight the Turkish oppressive rule and regain their independence. The society was also used to spread anti Turkish propaganda that helped to provoke revolutionary emotions of the Greeks to fight for their freedom. By 1821 the society had about 20,000 volunteers who began the rebellion.
16. Lastly, the rise and role of Greek nationalistic leaders was influential in sparking the rebellion.
Alexander Hypslanti and Capodistrious provided the leadership and secretly mobilized the Greeks through Heterophika for the rebellion. Capodistrious was the Russian foreign minister and Hypslanti had served as the Russian army officer. They were thus supported by Tsar Alexander I and even used some Russian soldiers to trigger off the revolt in Moldavia and Wallacia, which gave the Greeks an open opportunity to revolt by 1821. Hypslanti became the overall leader of Heterophilika society though which he decampaigned the Ottoman rule and mobilized the Greeks for the rev