tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-18937421344711570782024-03-18T23:13:22.531-07:00welcome to mubula resource center of excellencethis is a free high school resource center for students interested in learningladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.comBlogger923125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-20628862608745493182018-07-14T06:30:00.004-07:002018-07-14T07:28:45.461-07:00Giving examples give an account of the evidences of organic evolution<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; padding-left: 60px;">
<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "lucida sans" , sans-serif; font-size: 18px;"> <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1893742134471157078#editor/target=post;postID=2062886260874549318" target="_blank">Giving examples give an account of the evidences of organic evolution</a></span></h4>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-14375397384344385962018-07-14T06:21:00.001-07:002018-07-14T06:21:17.214-07:00chemistry-notes-questions-and-answers-for-o-and-a-level.<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-256.html"><span style="color: blue;">A LEVEL CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS NOTES AND QUESTIONS</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-level-chemistry-pastpapers-for-uganda-national-examination-board.html"><span style="color: blue;">A LEVEL CHEMISTRY PASTPAPERS FOR UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION </span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uace-joint-mock-examinations-2010-p5251-chemistry-paper-1.html"><span style="color: blue;">UACE JOINT MOCK EXAMINATIONS 2010 P525/1 CHEMISTRY PAPER 1</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-268.html"><span style="color: blue;">UACE JOINT MOCK EXAMINATIONS 2010 P525/2 CHEMISTRY PAPER 2</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-269.html"><span style="color: blue;">UACE JOINT MOCK EXAMINATIONS 2010 P525/3 CHEMISTRY PAPER 3</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uce-joint-mock-examinations-2010.html"><span style="color: blue;">UCE JOINT MOCK EXAMINATIONS 2010</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uce-joint-mock-examinations-2010-5452-chemistry-paper-2.html"><span style="color: blue;">UCE JOINT MOCK EXAMINATIONS 2010 545/2 CHEMISTRY PAPER 2</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uce-joint-mock-examinations-2010-5453-chemistry-paper-3.html"><span style="color: blue;">UCE JOINT MOCK EXAMINATIONS 2010 545/3 CHEMISTRY PAPER 3</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-advanced-certificate-of-education-unnase-joint-mock-examinations-chemistry-paper-1.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA ADVANCED CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION UNNASE JOINT MOCK</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-advanced-certificate-of-education-unnase-joint-mock-examinations-chemistry-paper-1.html"><span style="color: blue;">EXAMINATIONS CHEMISTRY PAPER 1</span></a></span><br />
<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-chemistry-1992.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD CHEMISTRY 1992</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-chemistry-1993.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD CHEMISTRY 1993</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-chemistry-1994.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD CHEMISTRY 1994</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-chemistry-1996.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD CHEMISTRY 1996</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-chemistry-1997.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD CHEMISTRY 1997</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-1995-chemistry.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 1995 CHEMISTRY</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-1998-chemistry.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 1998 CHEMISTRY</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-234.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 1999 CHEMISTRY</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-233.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 2000 CHEMISTRY</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-2002-chemistry.html"><span style="color: blue;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 2002 CHEMISTRY</span></a></span><br />
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ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-58301506488506457152018-06-25T03:49:00.001-07:002018-06-25T03:49:37.843-07:00biology notes questions and answer for o level<div class="sm-row-fluid smue-row sme-dsbl-margin-left sme-dsbl-margin-right" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #777777; font-family: "Noto Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px -15px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">
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<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="page_item page-item-143" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">A LEVEL PAST PAPERS FOR UNEB</strong></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-143" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-145" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-past-paper-biology-2001.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PAST PAPER BIOLOGY 2001</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-131" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-past-paper-for-o-level-biology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PAST PAPER FOR O LEVEL BIOLOGY</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-1003" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-2003.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 2003</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-1001" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-2004.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 2004</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-999" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-2005.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 2005</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-997" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-2006.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 2006</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-995" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-pastpaper-2007.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD PASTPAPER 2007</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-1028" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/uganda-national-examination-board-chemistry-1992.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATION BOARD CHEMISTRY 1992</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-143" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: 24px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: red; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">FIND ALL PAST PAPERS FOR UNEB AND ANSWERS FOR O LEVEL</span></span></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #339966; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">POPULAR QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS</strong></span></div>
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<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="page_item page-item-181" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-describe-causes-and-effects-of-water-pollution-10mks-b-describe-the-various-control-measures-for-water-borne-diseases-10mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;">(a) Describe causes and effects of water pollution. (10mks)</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-181" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-describe-causes-and-effects-of-water-pollution-10mks-b-describe-the-various-control-measures-for-water-borne-diseases-10mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;">(b) Describe the various control measures for water borne diseases. (10mks)</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="page_item page-item-212" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-explain-the-roles-of-the-mammalian-placenta-7-mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;">(a) Explain the roles of the mammalian placenta. (7 mks)</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-194" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/i-blood-has-two-broad-functions-namely-protective-and-transport-describe-how-the-blood-protects-the-body-4-marks-ii-describe-the-structural-adaptation-of-the-mammalian-heart-to-its-function.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;">(i) Blood has two broad functions namely protective and transport. Describe how the blood protects the body. (4 marks)</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-194" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-194" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-194" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/i-blood-has-two-broad-functions-namely-protective-and-transport-describe-how-the-blood-protects-the-body-4-marks-ii-describe-the-structural-adaptation-of-the-mammalian-heart-to-its-function.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;">(ii) Describe the structural adaptation of the mammalian heart to its function. (16 marks)</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-158" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/in-a-tabular-form-state-three-differences-between-epigeal-germination-and-hypogeal-germination-3-marks-b-i-what-is-seed.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"> (i) Describe epigeal germination of a seed [ 6 marks ]</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-158" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/in-a-tabular-form-state-three-differences-between-epigeal-germination-and-hypogeal-germination-3-marks-b-i-what-is-seed.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;">(ii) In a tabular form, state three differences between epigeal germination and hypogeal germination [ 3 marks ]</a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-158" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/in-a-tabular-form-state-three-differences-between-epigeal-germination-and-hypogeal-germination-3-marks-b-i-what-is-seed.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;">(b) (i) What is seed dormancy? [2 marks ]</a></li>
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TOPICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS</div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/in-a-tabular-form-state-three-differences-between-epigeal-germination-and-hypogeal-germination-3-marks-b-i-what-is-seed.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(ii) State three ways by which dormancy in seeds can be broken</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/b-describe-how-hormones-regulate-the-menstrual-cycle-in-human-females-13-mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">) Describe how hormones regulate the menstrual cycle in human females. (13 mks)</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/name-two-functional-parts-of-the-mammalian-circulatory-system-2-marks-b-name-two-diseases-of-the-mammalian-circulatory-system-2-marks-c-describe-water-movement-from-the-soil-into-a-plant-unt.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">) Name two functional parts of the mammalian circulatory system. (2 marks)</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/name-two-functional-parts-of-the-mammalian-circulatory-system-2-marks-b-name-two-diseases-of-the-mammalian-circulatory-system-2-marks-c-describe-water-movement-from-the-soil-into-a-plant-unt.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">b) Name two diseases of the mammalian circulatory system. (2 marks)</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/name-two-functional-parts-of-the-mammalian-circulatory-system-2-marks-b-name-two-diseases-of-the-mammalian-circulatory-system-2-marks-c-describe-water-movement-from-the-soil-into-a-plant-unt.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">c) Describe water movement from the soil into a plant until it is lost to atmosphere through the leaf. (16 marks)</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/state-any-two-functions-of-the-placenta-2mks-describe-the-role-of-hormones-in-the-human-menstrual-cycle-18mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">) State any two functions of the placenta. (2mks)</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/state-any-two-functions-of-the-placenta-2mks-describe-the-role-of-hormones-in-the-human-menstrual-cycle-18mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual cycle. (18mks)</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/5-characteristics-of-an-arthropoda.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">5 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ARTHROPODA</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/how-are-leaves-adaptated-to-their-function.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">How are leaves adaptated to their function?</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/how-are-leaves-of-mesophytes-suited-to-their-function-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">HOW ARE LEAVES OF MESOPHYTES SUITED TO THEIR FUNCTION? (20MKS)</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/genetics-notes-for-biology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">GENETICS</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/an-experiment-to-demonstrate-the-conditions-necessary-for-germinationbiology-notes-on-germination.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Germination</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/giving-examples-give-an-account-of-the-evidences-of-organic-evolution-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">GIVING EXAMPLES GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF THE EVIDENCES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION. (20MKS</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/i-blood-has-two-broad-functions-namely-protective-and-transport-describe-how-the-blood-protects-the-body-4-mks-ii-describe-the-structural-adaptation-of-the-mammalian-heart-to-its-function-16m.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> BLOOD HAS TWO BROAD FUNCTIONS NAMELY PROTECTIVE AND TRANSPORT. DESCRIBE HOW THE BLOOD PROTECTS THE BODY. (4 MKS)</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/i-blood-has-two-broad-functions-namely-protective-and-transport-describe-how-the-blood-protects-the-body-4-mks-ii-describe-the-structural-adaptation-of-the-mammalian-heart-to-its-function-16m.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(II) DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART TO ITS FUNCTION. (16MKS)</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/economic-importance-of-bacteriathe-bacteria-has-the-following-characteristicskingdom-monera.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">KINGDOM MONERA</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/difference-between-dicotyledonae-and-monocotyledonaekingdom-plantae.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">KINGDOM PLANTAE</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/support-and-movement-in-animalsfunctions-of-skeletonadaptations-of-birds-for-flight-types-of-feathers-their-characteristics-and-functions-movement-without-muscles.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Locomotion</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/locomtion-notes-for-biology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Locomotion</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/notes-on-mitosis-in-biology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">MITOSIS</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/gaseous-exchange-in-amphibians-biology-notes.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gaseous exchange in amphibians</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/gaseous-exchange-in-animals-and-plants.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/gaseous-exchange-in-insects.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gaseous exchange in insects</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/how-are-different-leaf-modifications-of-importance-to-given-plants.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">How are different leaf modifications of importance to given plants</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/name-the-parts-of-the-light-microscope-and-state-their-functions.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">NAME THE PARTS OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND STATE THEIR FUNCTIONS</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/nucleic-acids-and-the-genetic-code-the-structure-of-nucleotidesdeoxyribonucleic-acid-dnaprocess-of-dna-replicationsemi-conservative-vs-conservative-dna-replicationsemi-conservative-vs-conserva.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">NUCLEIC ACIDS AND THE GENETIC CODE.</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/outline-the-characteristics-of-the-meristematic-tissues-4mks-b-state-and-describe-the-types-of-meristems-16mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">OUTLINE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MERISTEMATIC TISSUES .[4MKS]</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/outline-the-characteristics-of-the-meristematic-tissues-4mks-b-state-and-describe-the-types-of-meristems-16mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">b. STATE AND DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF MERISTEMS. [16MKS]</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/plant-structure-and-function.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Plant Structure and Function</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/for-those-plants-that-cross-pollinate-some-are-wind-pollinated-others-are-insect-pollinated-here-are-some-of-the-differences-adaptations-to-promote-cross-pollinationsexual-reproduction-in-flowe.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants</span></a></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/transport-of-organic-solutes-in-the-phloem.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">TRANSPORT OF ORGANIC SOLUTES IN THE PHLOEM</span></a></span></div>
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<li class="page_item page-item-262" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/explain-how-abiotic-factors-affect-plants-20mks-2.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">DESCRIBE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION. (10MKS)</span></a><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-262" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-262" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/explain-how-abiotic-factors-affect-plants-20mks-2.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(B) DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS CONTROL MEASURES FOR WATER BORNE DISEASES (10MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-262" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-240" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-describe-the-process-of-fertilization-in-flowering-plant-15-mks-b-state-the-changes-that-take-place-in-a-flower-after-fertilization-5-mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">A) DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION IN FLOWERING PLANT. (15 MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-240" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-240" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-describe-the-process-of-fertilization-in-flowering-plant-15-mks-b-state-the-changes-that-take-place-in-a-flower-after-fertilization-5-mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">B) STATE THE CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE IN A FLOWER AFTER FERTILIZATION. (5 MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
</ul>
<div style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="page_item page-item-268" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-explain-the-factors-that-affect-the-rate-of-transpiration-in-plants-12-mks-b-describe-different-ways-in-which-plants-respond-to-different-stimuli-8-mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">A) EXPLAIN THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION IN PLANTS. (12 mks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-268" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-268" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-explain-the-factors-that-affect-the-rate-of-transpiration-in-plants-12-mks-b-describe-different-ways-in-which-plants-respond-to-different-stimuli-8-mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">B) DESCRIBE DIFFERENT WAYS IN WHICH PLANTS RESPOND TO DIFFERENT STIMULI. (8 mks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-268" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-266" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-give-the-functions-of-the-skin-in-organisms-6-mks-b-how-is-the-mammalian-skin-modified-to-enable-it-perform-its-functions-14mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">A) GIVE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN IN ORGANISMS. (6 MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-266" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-266" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-give-the-functions-of-the-skin-in-organisms-6-mks-b-how-is-the-mammalian-skin-modified-to-enable-it-perform-its-functions-14mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">B) HOW IS THE MAMMALIAN SKIN MODIFIED TO ENABLE IT PERFORM ITS FUNCTIONS? (14MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-266" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-200" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-i-define-the-term-organic-evolution-2mks-ii-distinguish-between-homologous-and-analogous-structures-2mks-iii-discuss-the-various-evidences-of-organic-evolution-16mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">a) i) Define the term organic evolution. (2mks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-200" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-200" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-i-define-the-term-organic-evolution-2mks-ii-distinguish-between-homologous-and-analogous-structures-2mks-iii-discuss-the-various-evidences-of-organic-evolution-16mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ii) Distinguish between homologous and analogous structures. (2mks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-200" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-200" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-i-define-the-term-organic-evolution-2mks-ii-distinguish-between-homologous-and-analogous-structures-2mks-iii-discuss-the-various-evidences-of-organic-evolution-16mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">iii) Discuss the various evidences of organic evolution. (16mks</span></a>)</span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-200" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-179" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-name-three-supportive-tissues-in-woody-plants-3-marks-b-state-three-functions-of-the-endoskeleton-3-marks-c-explain-how-the-girdles-are-adapted-to-their-functions-14-marks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">a) Name three supportive tissues in woody plants. (3 marks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-179" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-179" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-name-three-supportive-tissues-in-woody-plants-3-marks-b-state-three-functions-of-the-endoskeleton-3-marks-c-explain-how-the-girdles-are-adapted-to-their-functions-14-marks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">b) State three functions of the endoskeleton. (3 marks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-179" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-179" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-name-three-supportive-tissues-in-woody-plants-3-marks-b-state-three-functions-of-the-endoskeleton-3-marks-c-explain-how-the-girdles-are-adapted-to-their-functions-14-marks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">c) Explain how the girdles are adapted to their functions. (14 marks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-179" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-183" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-what-is-natural-selection-theory-put-forward-by-charles-darwin-that-explains-that%c3%b7-nature-selects-for-individuals-that-are-well-adapted-to-a-particular-environment-and-against-those-that.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">a) What is natural selection? ( (2 mks)</span></a></span></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-183" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-183" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-what-is-natural-selection-theory-put-forward-by-charles-darwin-that-explains-that%c3%b7-nature-selects-for-individuals-that-are-well-adapted-to-a-particular-environment-and-against-those-that.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">b) Discuss three examples of natural selection in action</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-183" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/a-what-is-natural-selection-theory-put-forward-by-charles-darwin-that-explains-that%c3%b7-nature-selects-for-individuals-that-are-well-adapted-to-a-particular-environment-and-against-those-that.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">.</span></a></span></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-429" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-93.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">a)Describe mitosis and its importance.</span></a></span></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-92" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/about.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">About</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-92" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-272" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/what-is-the-role-of-the-liver-in-the-maintenance-of-a-constant-level-of-materials-in-the-body-20mks-2.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ADAPTATIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TO GASEOUS EXCHANGE (20 mks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-272" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
</ul>
<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="page_item page-item-254" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-role-of-hormones-in-the-female-menstrual-cycle-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE FEMALE MENSTRUAL CYCLE (20MKS)</span></a></span></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-254" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-202" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-role-of-hormones-in-the-mammalian-female-reproductive-cycle-20-marks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the role of hormones in the mammalian female reproductive cycle. (20 marks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-202" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
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<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="page_item page-item-384" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/o-level-notes-on-ecology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ECOLOGY</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-384" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/ecology-the-study-of-how-living-organisms-interact-with-each-other-and-with-their-abiotic-environment-abiotic-factors-non-living-components-of-the-environment.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">.</span></a></span></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-173" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/discuss-the-various-evidence-of-organic-evolution.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Discuss the various evidence of organic evolution</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-173" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-427" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/notes-on-enzymes-in-biology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Enzymes</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-427" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-395" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-81.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Evolution</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-395" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-81.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">:</span></a></span></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-378" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/page-76.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">EXCRETION</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-378" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-397" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/excretion.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">EXCRETION</span></a><a href="http://denaheights.com/experiment-to-show-that-pressure-in-liquids-increase-with-increase-in-depth-h.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">.</span></a></span></li>
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<hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/what-is-the-role-of-the-liver-in-the-maintenance-of-a-constant-level-of-materials-in-the-body-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE LIVER IN THE MAINTENANCE OF A CONSTANT LEVEL OF MATERIALS IN THE BODY. (20mks))</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/with-the-aid-a-labelled-diagram-describe-a-human-sperm.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">With the aid a labelled diagram describe a human sperm</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/mammalian-teeth.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">MAMMALIAN TEETH</span></a></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/biology-notes-on-meiosis.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">MEIOSIS</span></a></span></div>
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><a href="http://denaheights.com/growth-and-differentiation-in-plants.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Growth and differentiation in plant</span>s</a></div>
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<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
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<li class="page_item page-item-1328" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/biology-paper-1-theory-time-2%c2%bd-hours-unnase-mock-2010-5531-biology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">UNNASE MOCK 2010 553/1 BIOLOGY</span></a></span></li>
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<li class="page_item page-item-169" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/biology-questions-and-answers.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">BIOLOGY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS</span></a></span></li>
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<li class="page_item page-item-927" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/biology-questions-and-answers-for-o-and-a-level.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">BIOLOGY-QUESTIONS-AND-ANSWERS-FOR-O-AND-A-LEVEL</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-399" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/cellulose-digestion-notes-for-biology.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">CELLULOSE DIGESTION</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-399" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-435" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/descrbe-the-process-that-take-place-in-the-light-stage-of-photosynthesis-how-are-xerophytes-adapted-to-their-climatic-condition-how-are-hydrophytes-addapted-to-their-functions.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Descrbe the process that take place.in. the light Stage of photosynthesis.</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-210" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/name-the-parts-of-the-light-microscope-and-state-their-functions-2.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">DESCRIBE CAUSES AND METHODS OF CONTROLLING WATER POLLUTION. (20 MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-230" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-how-human-male-reproductive-system-is-adapted-to-perform-its-functions-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">DESCRIBE HOW HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IS ADAPTED TO PERFORM ITS FUNCTIONS (20MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-230" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-204" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-how-seeds-and-fruits-are-suited-to-their-modes-of-dispersal-20marks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe how seeds and fruits are suited to their modes of dispersal. (20marks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<li class="page_item page-item-175" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-how-water-moves-from-the-soil-into-the-root-through-the-stem-then-into-the-leaf-to-the-atmosphere-17mks-b-state-three-mechanisms-by-which-manufactured-food-is-translocated-in-plants.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe how water moves from the soil into the root through the stem then into the leaf to the Atmosphere.(17mks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-175" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-175" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-how-water-moves-from-the-soil-into-the-root-through-the-stem-then-into-the-leaf-to-the-atmosphere-17mks-b-state-three-mechanisms-by-which-manufactured-food-is-translocated-in-plants.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(b) State three mechanisms by which manufactured food is translocated in plants</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-196" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-how-xerophytic-plants-are-structurally-adapted-to-their-habitat-20-marks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe how xerophytic plants are structurally adapted to their habitat. (20 marks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-196" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-171" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-adaptations-of-the-ileum-to-its-function-20-marks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the adaptations of the ileum to its function (20 marks)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-171" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-238" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-digestion-of-a-buttered-piece-of-bread-from-the-time-it-is-ingested-until-it-is-absorbed-in-the-body-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">DESCRIBE THE DIGESTION OF A BUTTERED PIECE OF BREAD FROM THE TIME IT IS INGESTED UNTIL IT IS ABSORBED IN THE BODY. (20MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-238" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-258" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-functions-of-the-parts-of-a-mammalian-skin-20-mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A MAMMALIAN SKIN. (20 MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-258" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-234" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-mechanisms-of-breathing-in-and-out-in-mammals.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the mechanisms of breathing in and out in mammals</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-234" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-407" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-process-by-which-tissue-fluid-and-lymph-are-formed.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the process by which tissue fluid and lymph are formed?</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-407" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-437" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-process-of-digestion-of-food-from-the-mouth-to-the-stomach-the-mouth-explain-the-male-and-female-secondary-sexual-characteristics-what-are-the-functions-of-the-parts-of-female-reprod.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the process of digestion of food from the mouth to the stomach The mouth</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-437" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-431" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-process-of-dna-replication-in-prokaryotes.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the process of DNA replication in. Prokaryotes</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-431" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-433" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: 18px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/describe-the-process-of-translation-leading-to-polypeptide-formation.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Describe the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-433" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
</ul>
<ul style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="page_item page-item-236" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/explain-five-abiotic-factors-that-affect-the-ecosystem-20m.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">EXPLAIN FIVE ABIOTIC FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ECOSYSTEM (20M]</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-236" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-260" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/explain-how-abiotic-factors-affect-plants-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">EXPLAIN HOW ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECT PLANTS. (20MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-260" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-284" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/explain-how-the-mammalian-heart-is-adapted-to-perform-its-function-20mks.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">EXPLAIN HOW THE MAMMALIAN HEART IS ADAPTED TO PERFORM ITS FUNCTION. (20MKS)</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
</li>
<li class="page_item page-item-284" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></li>
<li class="page_item page-item-256" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/explain-the-different-evidences-of-evolution.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #003366; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Explain the different evidences of evolution</span></a></span></span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><hr style="border-bottom: 0px; border-image: initial; border-left: 0px; border-right: 0px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;" />
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<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/biology-notes-on-meiosis.html" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #8ecc0a; font: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.6s ease-in-out; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: navy; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1em; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">MEIOSIS</span></a></span></div>
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ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-85312795607058209782017-02-22T04:17:00.002-08:002017-02-22T04:17:55.718-08:00. The regulation of temperature is done by the skin.. The regulation of temperature is done by the skin.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b> When the body is exercising vigorously or when the surrounding is hot:</b><br />
<br />
Thermoreceptors in the skin detect an increase in environmental<br />
temperature or heat sensors in the hypothalamus detect a rise in<br />
the temperature of the blood.<br />
1)<br />
2) The sweat glands increase the production of sweat.<br />
Vasodilation, increases the internal diameter of blood vessels so<br />
that more blood is brought to the capillaries.<br />
3)<br />
4) Body loses heat as sweat evaporates.<br />
Body loses heat as more blood is brought to the skin surface,<br />
leading to increased heat loss by conduction, convection and<br />
radiation.<br />
5)<br />
Metabolic rate is lowered leading to the decreased heat<br />
production by cells.<br />
6)<br />
7) Body temperature is lowered.<br />
<br />
<b>When the body is at rest or when the surrounding is cold:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Thermoreceptors in the skin detect decrease in the environmental<br />
temperature or heat sensors in the hypothalamus detect drop in<br />
temperature of blood.<br />
1)<br />
2) The sweat glands stop production of sweat.<br />
Vasoconstriction, reduces the internal diameter of blood vessels so<br />
that less blood is brought to the capillaries.<br />
3)<br />
Body gains heat as erector muscles in the skin contract causing the<br />
hairs to stand up, creating a layer of air which will act as insulation.<br />
4)<br />
Skeletal muscles contract and relax repeatedly; this shivering<br />
resulting in production of heat.<br />
5)<br />
Less blood is brought to the skin surface so that less heat will be<br />
lost.<br />
6)<br />
Metabolic rate is raised leading to increased heat production by<br />
cells.<br />
7)<br />
<br />
8) Body temperature is raised.ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-27090880054459430612017-02-21T22:03:00.000-08:002017-02-21T22:03:00.846-08:00 Inspiration & Expiration:) Inspiration is an active process involving the contraction of:<br />
○ The external intercostal muscles; and<br />
○ The diaphragm muscles.<br />
Contraction of the external intercostal muscles pulls the rib cage upwards<br />
and outwards, while contraction of the diaphragm muscles result in the<br />
flattening of the diaphragm.<br />
B)<br />
The net result is an increase in the volume of the thorax (the part of the<br />
body between the neck and the abdomen where the heart and lungs lie).<br />
C)<br />
D) Pressure in the thorax is thus reduced.<br />
Air is then sucked into the lungs, inflating the alveoli until the internal<br />
pressure equals that of the atmosphere.<br />
E)<br />
F) Expiration is a passive process.<br />
During expiration, only the internal intercostal muscles contract. The rib<br />
cage drops, mainly due to its own weight.<br />
G)<br />
The diaphragm relaxes and is forced into a dome shape by the falling rib<br />
cage.<br />
H)<br />
I) The volume of the thorax is decreased.<br />
J) Pressure is then exerted on the air in the lungs, forcing it out.<br />
During forced breathing, such as during exercise or sneezing, expiration<br />
becomes a much more active and forceful process as the ribs are moved<br />
more vigorously downwards and the diaphragm is moved upwards.ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-52348486561519308722017-02-21T22:00:00.003-08:002017-02-21T22:00:38.555-08:00. Differences between arteries and veins1) Arteries have smaller central cavity than veins.<br />
2) Arteries have thicker elastic and muscular wall than veins.<br />
3) Veins have valves while arteries don't have valves.<br />
The blood flows slower, smoother and at low pressure than<br />
arteries.<br />
4)<br />
All arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery while<br />
all veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins.<br />
5)<br />
Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the body while veins<br />
carry blood to the heart from the body.<br />
6)<br />
The blood carried by arteries are bright red in colour while the<br />
blood carried by veins are dark red in colour.<br />
7)<br />
Blood in arteries flow due to the pumping action of the heart while<br />
veins flow due to the contraction of the heart.<br />
8)<br />
Veins are big, slow and evil.<br />
2:ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-36576468536299417042017-02-21T06:48:00.000-08:002017-02-21T06:48:43.073-08:00How are gills in a bony fish adapted to their functions<br />
<br />
Gills work on the same principle as lungs. In the lungs, there are small
sacs called alveoli that are approximately 70% capillaries. These
capillaries carry deoxygenated blood from the body. As oxygen and carbon
dioxide pass across the alveoli’s membrane, the capillaries take the
newly oxygenated blood back to the body. Similarly, gills have small
rows and columns of specialized cells grouped together called the
epithelium. Deoxygenated blood in the fish is supplied directly from the
heart to the epithelium via arteries, and even yet smaller arterioles.
As seawater is forced across the epithelium membranes, dissolved oxygen
in the seawater is taken up by tiny blood vessels and veins, while the
carbon dioxide is exchanged.<br />
<br />
<h2>
Breathing</h2>
Oxygen dissolved in the water is absorbed by the gills. The
movements of the mouth floor and operculum are co-ordinated to produce a
stream of water, in through the mouth, over the gills and out of the
operculum. <br />
There are usually four gills on each side consisting of a curved
bony gill-bar bearing many fine filaments. Through the gill-bar run
blood vessels which send branches into the gill filaments. The filaments
bear smaller filaments down their length which, in turn, divide into
smaller branches. So great a number of minute branches provides a very
large surface area when the gills are immersed in water. The walls of
the gill filaments are very thin, enabling the oxygen to diffuse rapidly
into the blood. A convenient way of visualizing the gills is as an
orderly system of blood capillaries exposed to the water in such a way
as to absorb oxygen.<br />
The mechanism for pumping water over the gills seems to vary in
detail according to the type of fish but, in general, the pressure in
the mouth cavity is reduced by the floor of the mouth being lowered.
Sometimes the bony operculum is moved outwards as well, assisting the
increase in volume. In either case the free edge of the operculum acts
as a valve, being pressed against the body wall by the higher outside
pressure and so preventing water from entering through the opercular
opening. <br />
Thus, water enters through the mouth to equalize the pressure.
Next, the volume of the mouth cavity is reduced and the pressure
increased by raising the floor of the mouth. A valve inside the mouth,
formed by an inturned fold of skin, prevents water from leaving the
mouth. The increased pressure forces open the operculum and expels the
water through the opercular opening, causing it to pass between the gill
filaments as it leaves. <br />
Although there is more oxygen in air than in water, a fish will
suffocate in air. This is probably because the muscular system of mouth
and operculum which can work in water will not function in air. In other
words, the valve system which is water-tight is not air-tight. Another
important reason is that when a fish is out of water, the surface
tension of the water-film covering the gill filaments sticks them
together so that the total surface exposed is very much reduced.<br />
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-47506110799861404332017-02-21T06:38:00.002-08:002018-06-26T01:05:17.481-07:00DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EPIGEAL GERMINATION AND HYPOGEAL GERMINATION<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EPIGEAL GERMINATION AND HYPOGEAL GERMINATION<br />
<br />
<br />
In hypogeal germination, the cotyledons emerge from the seed containing
enough nutrients to fuel seed development and are not photosynthetic. These
seeds are usually larger than epigeal seeds. As the seedling grows, its shoot
rises above ground level, while the cotyledons remain below or at ground level.<br />
In epigeal germination, the cotyledons emerge and rise above ground level as
the seedling grows. They may also serve a photosynthetic role in seedling
development. Seedlings that develop this way quickly form a shoot and leaves,
both of which perform photosynthesis to fuel further development<br />
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<u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Description of Epigeal Germination</span></u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Seed absorbs/imbibes water and swells;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">testa splits and the radicle emerges;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">the hypocotyl of the germinating seed elongates;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">pushing the seed out of the soil;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">the cotyledon(s) become exposed to sunlight;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">and turn green to photosynthesize;</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">the plumule develops into a green shoot</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">and the cotyledon(s) dry up/shrink and fall off.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://denaheights.com/in-a-tabular-form-state-three-differences-between-epigeal-germination-and-hypogeal-germination-3-marks-b-i-what-is-seed.html" target="_blank"> (ii) Differences between Epigeal andHypogeal Germination</a><br /> CLICK THE LINK ABOVE TO CONTINUE READING<u> </u> </span></div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-22411891848208282172017-02-04T07:56:00.001-08:002017-02-04T07:56:34.515-08:00Factors affecting soil fertility and productivity<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<h1>
Factors affecting soil fertility and productivity </h1>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Soil fertility</span></span></b><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> is
the ability of the soil to provide nutrients in proper quantities and in a
balanced way for the growth of plants. A fertile soil should have the
correct proportion of plants nutrients and optimum pH</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Soil productivity</span></b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> is
the capacity of the soil, in its normal environment to support plant growth</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Soil fertile
greatly affects soil productivity. A fertile soil always leads to high soil
productivity</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> However,
soil productivity is affected or influenced y other factors other than the soil
fertility. For example, presence of weeds in the farms may lower the level of
productivity of the soil, even when the soil fertile. Other factors like
farming methods used may also lower the productivity of the soil.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> In
farming, soil fertility may lost through many ways, some of
these ways are as result of human activities while others are
through natural process. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
following are some ways through which soil fertility may be lost:</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(1) Leaching</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This is
common with nutrients that are highly soluble such as nitrogen, these nutrients
are carried to lower far from beyond the reach of many plants roots, soil with
many leached nutrients are infertility.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(2) Soil capping</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This is when
the soil is covered (capped) with an impervious material which prevents the
penetration of rainwater into the soil, this leads to surface run – off. This
denies the soil adequate moisture and exposes the soil to erosion</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(3) Soil erosion</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This is the
carrying away of the top fertile soil by moving water and wind. Erosion leads
to loss of the fertile top soil and plant nutrients, this makes the soil
infertility.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(4) Monocropping</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Monocropping
is the practice of growing one type of gropes on a piece of land for a long
time. The gropes grown uses only those nutrients it needs while other nutrients
remain unused, this leads to exhaustion of some nutrients and eventually to
their deficiency in the following years</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">There is also likelihood of build up
of pests and disease, the same pest and disease are passed on from the residue
of previous crop, this leads to low yield</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(5) Accumulation of salt</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Soil water
contains dissolved minerals salts from the parent rock; some of the salt comes
from decomposition of organic matter.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Under normal
condition, the salts are washed away by rain water, thereby keeping their
concentration in the soil low. However in arid and semi-arid areas the rainfall
is irregular and is not enough to remove the salt from the soil.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This together
with the high evaporation rate and poor drainage, leads to accumulation of salt
on or below of the soil surface. The salt cause deficiency of water in plants
as water moves out of the root in the soil under the osmotic pressure of the
salt solution.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(6) Change in the pH</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inappropriate
use of fertilizers may change the soil pH, for example, the use of acidic
fertilizer over a long period of time can make the soil acidic.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Change in pH
affects the activity of the soil microorganisms and the availability of some
nutrients. This, in run, affects the fertility of the soil.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(7) Burning of vegetation</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">When
vegetation is burned, organic matter is destroyed; this affects the activities
of microorganisms such as nitrogen fixation and decomposition of organic
matter.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Accumulation of the
resulting ash also causes imbalance of nutrients in the soil. Burning of
vegetation also exposes the soil to agents of erosion such as wind and water</span>ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-8293627354816926412017-02-04T07:55:00.000-08:002017-02-04T07:55:20.780-08:00Germination and Development<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
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<br />
<h1>
Germination and Development</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Now we know how seeds develop, and how they get from place
to place. But how does a seed, which can lie dormant in the soil for weeks,
months, or years, develop into a plant? <br />
Seeds have to take in water to germinate. Drinking in water causes the seed to
expand and burst its seed coat (imagine all the buttons popping off!). Inside
the seed, hormonal changes cause the endosperm to break down and let the
cotyledons absorb nutrients. The first thing to emerge from the seed is the
embryonic root, called a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">radicle</span></strong>. Next
the shoot starts to emerge, and has to push its way up through the soil to the
surface where it can start getting light. This is done differently in eudicots
and monocots.<br />
<br />
In eudicots, the shoot pushes up through the soil in a bent-over, U-shaped
position. The area just below the cotyledons is called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">hypocotyl</span></strong>, and the stem area
above the cotyledons is called the epicotyl. The hypocotyl acts as a battering
ram for the shoot. By emerging this way, the fragile apical meristem is
protected from abrasive particles in the soil. <br />
<br />
Aboveground, the stem straightens out, the two cotyledons unfold, and the
epicotyl regains its place at the top of the stem. These two first leaves are
"seed leaves" and not "true leaves," since they existed in
the seed. The cotyledons will nourish the seedling for a short time, but will
shrivel and die quickly once true leaves have formed. <br />
<br />
Monocots have a different way of doing things. Rather than make a battering ram
out of a hypocotyl, monocots use a tunnel to get to the surface. Monocot seeds
don’t come with shovels; they use the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">coleoptile</span></strong>, a
protective sheath covering the embryo, for their transportation needs. The
coleoptile pushes up to the surface and the shoot grows straight up through the
tip of the coleoptile. <br />
<br />
Another difference between eudicots and monocots is the way their roots grow.
Eudicots usually grow a main root, called a taproot, that grows deep and other
roots branch sideways from. Monocots often just have a shallow fibrous root
system but no main root. <br />
<br />
<em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Acorus calamus</span></em> is a monocot, whose
roots look like this:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In this picture of, you can clearly see the taproot: <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Once a seedling gets its roots going and grows some new leaves, it is pretty
much established. However, it’s not ready to start a family yet; plants have
juvenile and adult stages just like humans, though plants get to skip those
awkward middle school years. Plant development is dictated by the all-important
shoot apical meristem. <br />
<br />
At some point determined by environmental conditions and hormones internal to
the plant, the juvenile plant will become an adult. When the plant passes from
its juvenile phase to its adult phase, the shoot apical meristem starts
producing adult leaves that do boring adult things like balance their
checkbooks and listen to talk radio. The shift to adulthood only affects new
growth on the plant—leaves that already exist and were made during the juvenile
phase retain their youthful look. <br />
<br />
Two important factors for flowering, photoperiod and hormones, are discussed in
their own sections. However, there are also genetic controls on flowers. When
the plant becomes an adult, the apical meristem converts into a floral
meristem. Somehow the apical meristem needs to develop all the flower parts.
Good thing there’s an instruction booklet. <br />
<br />
The instruction booklet for floral development is DNA, which also gives
directions for how to make everything else in the plant. First, a stimulus
called florigen moves up <br />
the vascular tissue to the shoot apical meristem. This causes certain genes to
be expressed. <br />
The general idea for how genes control flowers is called the ABC model. In the
ABC model, there are three switches that can be turned on in a cell to dictate
what floral part develops there. The switches are really groups of genes, and
gene expression is equivalent to flipping the switch on. <br />
<br />
The A group by itself causes sepals to develop. The C group by itself causes
carpels to form. When A and B are both turned on, petals form, and when B and C
work together, stamens develop. Scientists have figured out what these genes do
by studying mutant plants that are can’t express one of the genes.
Unfortunately, the mutant plants don’t have superpowers and won’t be joining
the X-Men anytime soon, but they have at least helped us figure out how flowers
form. <br />
<br />
A = sepals<br />
A + B = petals<br />
B + C = stamens<br />
C = carpels</div>
<h1>
Photoperiodism</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Contrary to popular belief, photoperiodism is not a modern
art movement; it refers to the day length plants need to trigger flowering. Why
is this important? As you already know, many plants require pollinators to
transfer their pollen. <br />
<br />
Pollinators such as birds and bees are more active in summer than winter, so
plants that rely on certain birds and bees are better off if they wait until
the long days of summer to open up their flowers. The <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">photoperiod</span></strong> is the number of
hours of daylight in a 24-hour period. In the northern hemisphere, winter days
have less sunlight than summer days, so they have a shorter photoperiod. The
leaf is the site of light perception, and only a small amount of leaf surface
needs to receive light to maintain the plant’s internal clock.<br />
<br />
The idea that day length could influence flowering arose in the 1920s, when
researchers in Maryland were trying to breed large-leaved tobacco plants of the
variety Maryland Mammoth. Though the researchers manipulated temperature,
moisture, and soil nutrients, they couldn’t get the plants to flower. In the
winter the researchers moved the plants into a greenhouse where they wouldn’t
freeze and at last, they flowered. <br />
<br />
The researchers learned by manipulating light that the tobacco plants would
flower only when there were less than 14 hours of daylight. This earned
Maryland Mammoth the label, "<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">short-day plant</span></strong>,"
because it needed a day shorter than some critical length to flower. Other
short-day plants include chrysanthemums, poinsettias, Easter lilies, and some
soybeans. <br />
<br />
The opposite of a short-day plant is a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">long-day plant</span></strong>.
In order to flower, these plants need light periods that are longer than a
certain time. Examples of long-day plants include spinach, radishes, lettuce,
and irises. <br />
<br />
Some plants aren’t picky about their photoperiod and will flower no matter how
long they get sunlight—these are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">day-neutral plants</span></strong>,
and include tomatoes, rice and dandelions. Other plants are extremely picky and
require certain conditions in addition to photoperiod. Some plants that grow in
northern climates need a specific photoperiod and prolonged cold temperatures
to stimulate flowering. This process, called vernalization, is required of
cabbage, celery, magnolias and beets. <br />
<br />
After a few more decades of manipulating plant flowering periods, researchers
realized that flowering responds to the length of the dark period (night), not
the length of light. For example, one short-day plant they used was cocklebur (<em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Xanthium strumarium</span></em>), which
required days that were shorter than 16 hours to flower. If researchers
interrupted the light period by putting the plant in total darkness for a brief
time, the plant still flowered. However, if they interrupted the dark period by
briefly turning on the lights, the plant didn’t flower. The researchers
concluded that the short-day plants are actually long-night plants because they
need a period of uninterrupted darkness that is longer than a certain length. <br />
<br />
The length of the night necessary for the plant to flower is called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">critical period</span></strong>. For the
Maryland Mammoth, the critical night period is ten hours because it needed a
daylength shorter than 14 hours and there are 24 hours in a day. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
.</div>
<h1>
Plant Hormones</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Teenagers aren’t the only ones with raging hormones. Plants
are full of hormones too, but lucky for them they don’t get pimples. In plants,
hormones are responsible for all sorts of things, like helping the plants sense
light, forming lateral roots, and triggering flower development and
germination, just to name a few. If a plant had a facebook account, it might
write updates like "OMG my axillary branches are shooting up so fast"
or "just tricked a bee into pseudo-copulating with my flower, lol."<br />
<br />
However, plants don’t have facebook, so they rely on hormones to be their
messengers. Hormones are signaling molecules that are produced in small amounts
and sent to other parts the plant body, like tiny messengers running around. <br />
<br />
Why should anyone care about plant hormones? Plant hormones are really
important in creating the green world around us, and providing the fruits we
eat and other plant products we enjoy on a daily basis. Many things about plant
hormones are still unknown, so it is a great field for a budding plant
biologist (no pun intended…well actually it was, sorry). <br />
<br />
Here we will discuss five types of plant hormones:</div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Auxin</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Cytokinins</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Gibberellins</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Abscisic
Acid</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Ethylene</li>
</ul>
<h2>
Auxin</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Scientists were interested in how plants respond to light;
if plants don’t have eyes, how do they sense where light is and which way they
should grow? It is a common observation that plants grow toward light, but for
a long time no one knew why. <br />
<br />
One of the first people to experiment with this concept was Charles Darwin, who
along with his son, Francis, was interested in figuring out how plants respond
to stimuli (in this case, light). They noticed that coleoptiles, which are
sheaths that protect grass stems as they germinate, bend toward light. They
tried covering the coleoptile with foil and found that when covered, the
coleoptile didn’t bend. When uncovered, it bent again! From this the Darwins
concluded that the tip of the grass coleoptile senses light. <br />
<br />
Even though it doesn’t seem very exciting now, in the 1800s this was just as
scandalous as Lady Gaga’s meat dress. The idea that plants could do something
as brilliant as respond to their environment was shocking in an age when Man
was exerting control on all things wild. <br />
<br />
Later work by another scientist, Frits Went, determined that the signal
responsible for bending toward light was a mobile chemical, and Went went ahead
and gave it the name auxin. These days, auxin is sometimes referred to by its
chemical name, indoleacetic acid (IAA). <br />
<br />
Auxin does a couple different things in a plant, but its main role is to work
with another type of hormone (cytokinins) to stimulate elongation of stems. If
auxin is helping cells elongate, it is likely found in a place where a lot of
new cells are forming. Where would that be? The shoot apical meristem, of
course! The shoot apical meristem is a major source of auxin, but not the only
one. Developing seeds also produce auxin, which leads to fruit development.
When fruits such as tomatoes are grown inside greenhouses where there are no
insect pollinators, synthetic auxins are used to help fruits develop normally. <br />
<br />
Another commercial use of auxin is in the vegetative propagation of plants from
cuttings. Instead of planting seeds, people can grow some plants by just
cutting a leaf or stem; spraying the detached leaf or stem with auxin induces
root production, and a whole new plant is formed. </div>
<h2>
Cytokinins</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Auxin helps cells elongate, but it doesn’t work alone.
Auxin’s partner in crime is a class of hormones called cytokinins. Cytokinins
promote cell division (cytokinesis) and are produced in roots, embryos and
fruits, or wherever there is actively growing tissue. However, cytokinins need
auxin to induce cell division. The ratio of cytokinins to auxin determines where
cells will develop. If cytokinin levels increase, shoots form; if auxins
increase, roots form. By themselves, cytokinins don’t cause any new tissues to
form. <br />
Cytokinins do a couple other things too: they help delay aging in plants by
increasing the amount of new protein that is made and decreasing the amount of
old protein that is demolished. Because of this, cytokinins are sprayed in
flower shops to keep leaves green and cut flowers fresh.</div>
<h2>
Gibberellins</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Gibberellins are most important in stems, fruits and seeds.
In stems, they work with auxin to cause stem elongation. Gibberellins and auxin
also work in concert when fruit is developing. In fact, green seedless grapes
are usually sprayed with gibberellins to make them bigger. Maybe that’s what
Snooki sprays on her hair, too. <br />
<br />
Seeds have the problem of not knowing when conditions are right for
germination; after all, they don’t come with calendars and thermometers. Lucky
for the seeds though, they do have lots of gibberellins, which are released
after seeds take up water (perhaps after a heavy spring rain). After
gibberellins are released, the outer layer of the endosperm releases digestive
enzymes that break down nutrients in the endosperm. These nutrients feed the
embryo as it germinates and grows into a seedling.</div>
<h2>
Abscisic Acid</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It looks like a scary name, but <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">abscisic</span></strong> comes from the word <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">abscise</span></strong>, meaning to cut off or
to fall away. On a plant, both leaves and fruits fall off, and abscisic acid
(ABA), got its name because scientists originally thought that ABA caused
leaves and fruits to fall off. It turned out later that other hormones (see
ethylene, below) are mainly responsible for abscission, but the name stuck. <br />
<br />
ABA does do some important things, even though it doesn’t do what it’s named
for. ABA slows growth, and is the main player in seed dormancy. Since plants
can’t exactly nurse their young and sing them lullabies like humans can, seeds
have to be a bit more independent than a lot of animal babies. In fact, seeds
are so good at taking care of themselves, they don’t even start growing until
conditions are right (temperatures are warm, or there is a lot of rain, or they
get free tickets to Disneyland). The abscisic acid in a seed keeps it dormant
(sleeping, basically). Certain things, such as water, light, or even prolonged
cold temperatures, cause the ABA to break down and cue germination of the seed.
<br />
<br />
ABA has another important role in plants: drought tolerance. When water gets
scarce and leaves start wilting, ABA production is cranked up in the roots. ABA
moves up the plant to the leaves. As it accumulates in the leaves, ABA causes
stomata to close, preventing more water loss. When water is plentiful again,
the ABA breaks down and stomata reopen. </div>
<h2>
Ethylene</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Where would we be without ethylene? We would have many
unripe fruits, for starters. And without ripe fruits we would have no
strawberry milkshakes, pineapple-mango smoothies, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_Ninja" target="_blank">Fruit Ninja</a>.
Ethylene helps fruits ripen by making them softer, through the breakdown
components of the cell walls, and sweeter, through the conversion of starches
to sugars. Unlike the other plant hormones, ethylene is actually a gas and is
distributed through the air, not through the plant body. <br />
<br />
One of the coolest things about ethylene is that it is released in a positive
feedback loop: a little bit of ethylene causes more to be released, which
causes even more to be released, and so on. A benefit of this fact is that you
can take an unripe fruit (a pear, plum, or peach, for example) and put it in a
paper bag with riper fruit (bananas work well for this) and ethylene will
accumulate, making the unripe fruit soft and sweet</div>
<h1>
The Light-Dependent and Light-Independent Reactions</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">light reactions</span></strong>,
or the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">light-dependent reactions</span></strong>, are
up first. We call them either and both names. The whole process looks a little
like this:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Do not freak out or fill your head with all the complicated names in that
diagram. No—stop right there. All in all, the process is simpler than it looks.
In the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">light-dependent reactions</span></strong> of
photosynthesis, the energy from light propels the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">electrons</span></strong> from a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">photosystem</span></strong> into a high-energy
state. In plants, there are <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">two photosystems</span></strong>,
aptly named Photosystem I and Photosystem II, located in the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">thylakoid membrane</span></strong> of the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">chloroplast</span></strong>. The <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">thylakoid membrane</span></strong> absorbs <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">photon energy</span></strong> of different
wavelengths of light.<br />
<br />
Here again is our friend the chloroplast. All exposed the way he is, he kind of
reminds us of a boat with green checkers in it:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Even though the two photosystems absorb different wavelengths of light, they
work similarly. Each photosystem is made of many different <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">pigments</span></strong>. Some of these
pigments can be described as <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">absorption pigments</span></strong>,
and others are considered <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">action pigments</span></strong>.
<br />
<br />
The <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">absorption pigments</span></strong> transfer
the energy from sunlight to another pigment; at each transfer, the absorption
pigments pass the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">photon</span></strong> energy
to another pigment that absorbs a <em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">similar</span></em> or lower
wavelength of light. Remember when we said that light is funky and acts like it
has both particles and waves? A photon is what we call the particle-like aspect
of light. In other words, a photon is the basic unit of light. <br />
<br />
Anyway, eventually, the energy makes it to the reaction center, or <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">action pigment</span></strong>. At this point,
the photosystem loses a highly charged electron to adjacent <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">oxidizing agents</span></strong>, or electron
acceptors, in the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">electron transport chain</span></strong>.
This transfer all occurs mind-bogglingly quickly at an estimated time of 200 ×
10<sup>-12</sup> seconds!<sup><a href="http://www.shmoop.com/photosynthesis/citations.html#2">2</a></sup> Since
the photosystem has lost an electron, it no longer has a neutral charge and has
instead become a positively charged photosystem.<br />
<br />
The positively charged photosystem creates a scenario similar to one that might
occur if <em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Twilight</span></em> stars Robert Pattinson and
Kristen Stewart made a surprise appearance at your local high school. You, like
the electrons in the photosystem, would be attracted to their presence even if
you hated them. (You would. Admit it.) The positively charged photosystem
attracts electrons from water (H<sub>2</sub>O) that can then be excited by
light energy. When exactly four electrons are removed from H<sub>2</sub>O,
oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) is generated. Why, you ask? If two water molecules have
four hydrogens that lose four electrons, exactly <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">four hydrogen ions (H<sup>+</sup>)</span></strong>
and <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">two oxygens</span></strong> are left. Don't
believe us? Count it out for yourself.<br />
<br />
Side note: since hydrogen normally only has 1 <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">proton</span></strong>
and 1 <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">electron</span></strong>, the four hydrogen
atoms that have each lost one electron are each referred to as H<sup>+</sup>.
Since each H<sup>+</sup> is now without an electron, there is only one proton
remaining in the hydrogen atom. At some point, scientists became lazy and
started equating H<sup>+</sup> with the word <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">proton</span></strong>.
If you think about it, they are in fact equivalent.<br />
<br />
Back to regularly scheduled programming. The protons are then moved into the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">thylakoid lumen</span></strong> of the
chloroplast using the power of the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">electron transport chain</span></strong>.
This move results in a higher concentration of protons in the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">lumen</span></strong> than in the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">stroma</span></strong> of the chloroplast. <br />
<br />
With so much positivity around, the protons get a little upset and try to
equalize their distribution in the chloroplast by moving from the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">lumen</span></strong> to the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">stroma</span></strong> to reach <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">equilibrium</span></strong> (read: equal
numbers of protons in both places). The rush of protons moving into the stroma
is called a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">proton gradient</span></strong>. When protons
move down the gradient, with <em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">down</span></em> referring to
the direction of the area containing fewer protons, the protons are grabbed by <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">enzymes</span></strong> that bring the protons
together with the electrons from the electron transport chain. This event
ultimately results in the making of <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">adenosine triphosphate</span></strong>
(<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ATP</span></strong>) and <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate</span></strong>
(<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">NADPH</span></strong>) from the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">adenosine diphosphate</span></strong> (<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ADP</span></strong>) and <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ion</span></strong>
(<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">NADP+</span></strong>) that were hanging around
nearby. <br />
<br />
Now that everyone is partying it up in the stroma, it becomes the perfect
location for the next stage of photosynthesis, the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">light-independent reactions</span></strong>.<br />
<br />
Pictures are worth the thousand words that may or may not have just whizzed by
your head as you were reading. Here is a much-simplified version of the earlier
picture:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Did you miss something, or do we just suck at drawing these pictures? Nope.
Photosystem II is ahead of Photosystem I. You might ask, "What the heck
happened, Shmoop?" Well, scientists actually discovered Photosystem II
before Photosystem I, and instead of changing the names when they found the other
photosystem, they just named them in reverse. We know; it's very annoying.<br />
<br />
As you’ve probably gathered by now, the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">light-dependent</span></strong>
reactions fuel the second stage of photosynthesis called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">light-independent reactions</span></strong>.
Our good buddy carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) provides an excellent source of
carbon for making carbohydrates. However, conversion of one mole (one mole is
an amount equal to 6.023 × 10<sup>23</sup> molecules) of CO<sub>2</sub> to one
mole of the carbohydrate CH<sub>2</sub>O requires a lot of energy. And we mean
a lot.<br />
<br />
Guess what? The <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ATP</span></strong> and <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">NADPH</span></strong> generated in the earlier <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">light reactions</span></strong> are strong <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">reducing agents</span></strong> (electron
donors) and are able to donate the necessary electrons to make carbohydrates.
Altogether, the conversion of one mole of CO<sub>2</sub> to one mole of CH<sub>2</sub>O
requires two moles of NADPH and three moles of ATP. If you do the math, that's
a heck of a lot of molecules. The cell then uses ATP and NADPH to make
carbohydrates in the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Calvin cycle</span></strong>.
We could use a Calvin and Hobbes cartoon right about now.<br />
<br />
A key player in the Calvin cycle is <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase oxygenase</span></strong> (affectionately called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">RuBisCo</span></strong>—thank goodness for
nicknames), an enzyme that "fixes" CO<sub>2</sub> to a 5-carbon
compound called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate</span></strong>
(RuBP). The oxygen in CO<sub>2</sub> is released as H<sub>2</sub>O. Immediately
after RuBisCo catalyzes the attachment of the carbon from CO<sub>2</sub> to the
5-carbon RuBP, the new 6-carbon compound is broken down into two 3-carbon
compounds called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">phosphoglycerate</span></strong>
(<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">PGA</span></strong>, and no, it does not know
how to golf). Since these 3-carbon compounds were the first compounds to be
identified in the plants, they were named <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">C<sub>3</sub>
plants</span></strong>. It was originally thought that RuBisCo was catalyzing
the attachment of carbon to a 2-carbon molecule to make a 3-carbon molecule.
Oopsies. And we thought RuBisCo was a cookie company at first, too. <br />
<br />
RuBisCo is actually a poor <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">enzyme</span></strong>.
Sorry, RuBie. It is slow at catalyzing the attachment of CO<sub>2</sub> to
RuBP. To make matters worse, RuBisCo is also capable of catalyzing another
less-than-beneficial reaction. This reaction is called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">photorespiration</span></strong>, and it occurs
when the concentration of CO<sub>2</sub> drops too low relative to the
concentration of O<sub>2</sub> in the cell. Photorespiration begins when
RuBisCo uses O<sub>2</sub> instead of CO<sub>2</sub> and adds it to RuBP.<br />
<br />
While CO<sub>2</sub> is eventually produced in this reaction, and O<sub>2</sub>
is consumed, the reaction does not seem to produce any useful energy forms. The
origination and purpose of photorespiration is controversial and still under
active study by scientists. In an attempt to overcome the deficiency of
RuBisCo, the plant cell produces a whopping ton of the enzyme. If this sounds
slightly masochistic, it kind of is, which is why photorespiration has been
labeled an outdated evolutionary relic. However, RuBisCo is thought to be the
most abundant protein on Earth.<sup><a href="http://www.shmoop.com/photosynthesis/citations.html#2">2</a></sup> <br />
<br />
Right…this not a moan fest about RuBisCo. We were explaining the Calvin cycle.
When RuBisCo catalyzes the attachment of CO<sub>2</sub> to the 5-carbon RuBP,
the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Calvin cycle begins</span></strong>. Reactions
are initiated to rebuild RuBP from PGA. In this process, 1 molecule of <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate</span></strong> (<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">G3P</span></strong>), a 3-carbon sugar, is
removed from the cycle. Altogether, 1 molecule of G3P is produced using 3
molecules of CO<sub>2</sub>, 9 molecules of ATP, and 6 molecules of NADPH. This
3-carbon sugar can be exported to the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">cytoplasm</span></strong> to
make sucrose (a sugar and a carbohydrate), which is then moved throughout the
plant for energy use. Alternatively, sucrose can be converted into another
carbohydrate, <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">starch</span></strong>, and
then stored in the chloroplast as a type of energy reserve. Smart, plants…real
smart.<br />
<br />
What's that? You want a picture? Sure thing; glad to be of service.</div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-68375597696764354812017-02-04T07:48:00.000-08:002017-02-04T07:48:06.521-08:00Plant Reproduction<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
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<h1>
<br /></h1>
<h2>
Bryophyte Reproduction</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bryophytes are primitive plants that don’t have seeds or
vascular systems. Because they lack a mechanism for moving water through their
bodies, bryophytes are pretty small. When was the last time you saw a tall
moss? Exactly. Mosses, liverworts and other bryophytes are so tiny that it is
easy to ignore them most of the time, even if they are under your feet. Mosses
actually are underfoot a lot—check out the cracks in the sidewalk and you’ll
probably find moss there. If you’re lucky, you might get to see a gametophyte
wearing a sporophyte like a hat. Now that would be an interesting fashion
statement.<br />
<br />
Gametophytes don’t "wear" sporophytes, exactly; they don’t put them
on in the morning and change out of them at night. What really happens is that
the sporophyte grows out of the top of the gametophyte, so it looks like a
headdress of some kind. <br />
<br />
In this image of stagshorn moss, the green leafy part is the gametophyte and
the tall spindle on top is the sporophyte. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The first thing bryophytes need to reproduce is water. Since they usually live
in places that are moist at least some of the time, this isn’t really a problem
for bryophytes. However, they still wait until a rainy period to reproduce,
because they need water to carry sperm to the eggs. <br />
<br />
Bryophyte reproduction happens in two ways, like with other plants. Remember
all that alternation of generations stuff? Asexual reproduction occurs when a
sporophyte releases spores, and sexual reproduction happens when gametes fuse
and form a zygote.<br />
<br />
When a bryophyte spore settles somewhere, it grows into a gametophyte.
Gametophytes are green and leafy, but small. A gametophyte’s reproductive
organs are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">antheridia</span></strong>
(male) and <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">archegonia</span></strong> (female). The
antheridia and archegonia look like little umbrellas sticking up from the
plant. Antheridia make sperm and archegonia make eggs. As Rihanna says, when
it’s raining more than ever, the eggs stay under the umbrella; meanwhile the
sperm take a free ride on the rainwater and seek out eggs. <br />
<br />
In the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, the antheridia look like umbrellas:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
After sperm and egg join in fertilization, the zygote grows into a sporophyte.
This is still happening on the gametophyte, which makes the sporophyte
generation completely dependent on the gametophyte generation. <br />
<br />
Sporophytes make spores in the plant’s spore factory, called a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sporangium</span></strong>. The spores are then
released from a capsule on top of the sporophyte. </div>
<h2>
Fern Reproduction</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ferns are seedless vascular plants. Instead of seeds, they grow
from spores. Spores grow into gametophytes, which in ferns are very tiny and
short-lived. The gametophytes release sperm to fertilize eggs, and
fertilization happens right on top of the gametophyte. The sporophyte grows
into a new fern plant, and produces spores to complete the life cycle. <br />
A few things make this simple story a little more complicated: <br />
<br />
Spores are produced in a sporangium (plural = sporangia). This is the spore
factory, and that word will come back to haunt you. Sporophytes are diploid
(2N), but since they produce spores through meiosis, spores are haploid (N).
Sporangia occur on the underside of fern fronds in little clusters called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sori</span></strong> (singular = sorus). If you
lift up a fern frond, you will often see little dots in neat lines. These are
sori, which will release spores when the time is right. Spores are carried by
the wind (dispersed) to new locations. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The densely packed brown dots are sori, clusters of spores underneath fern
leaves. <br />
The fern’s sperm are produced in the sperm factory, or antheridium. Meanwhile,
the female gametes, eggs, are housed in an archegonium. Gametophytes and
gametes are haploid (N). <br />
<br />
Sperm have flagella, which are whip-like tails that allow them to swim. In
order to swim, they need water. This means ferns can only successfully
reproduce in wet places, or after a rain. After fertilization, the sporophyte
grows up on top of the gametophyte. A mature sporophyte makes spores, and the
life cycle starts over again. </div>
<h2>
Gymnosperm Reproduction</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Gymnosperm means "naked seed," a name that
reflects the fact that gymnosperms have no fruits to protect their seeds.
However, the presence of seeds isn’t the only thing that separates gymnosperms
from ferns; a lot of changes happened along the way in the evolution of seed
plants. These changes include:</div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">the seed</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">reduced
gametophytes</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">heterospory</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">ovules</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">pollen
grains</li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
First, the
seed. What is a seed? A seed consists of an embryo and its food supply. A seed
has the potential to grow into a new plant, but isn’t considered a separate
plant until it disperses and germinates. Because a seed has a protective
coating in the form of a seed coat, it can lie dormant for months or years
until conditions are right for it to germinate. Spores don’t enjoy the same
relaxed schedule as seeds because they are usually made of only one cell, with
no protective coating. <br />
<br />
An example of a gymnosperm seed is the pinyon pine (below). Those round things
in the middle are the seeds, with the remnants of a cone surrounding them.<br />
(Public domain image from National Park Service, retrieved <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Reduced gametophytes: We know gametophytes are essential for plant life cycles.
In ferns, the gametophytes lived on their own, were photosynthetic, and were
small compared to the sporophyte. In gymnosperms, the gametophytes are even
smaller, only visible through a microscope. They aren’t photosynthetic and
don’t live on their own: instead, gametophytes live on the sporophyte. There
are also two kinds of gametophytes, bringing us to the next subject…<br />
<br />
Heterospory: In seed plants, there is no one-size-fits-all spore. Instead,
there are megaspores, which grow into female gametophytes, and microspores,
which grow into male gametophytes. Each sporangium makes only one kind of
spore, so the sporangia are either <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">megasporangia</span></strong>
or <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">microsporangia</span></strong>. Where do we
find these sporangia? On pinecones! And because not every gymnosperm is a pine,
we also find sporangia on cones of other species, such as firs, redwoods, and
spruces. <br />
<br />
You probably have spent much more of your life thinking about ice cream cones
and sno-cones than plant cones. Pinecones aren’t as tasty as frozen sweets, but
have very important jobs to do, so we can’t blame them too much. The technical
name for plant cones is strobili (sounds like a type of pasta, doesn’t it?),
and they are the site of all the sporangia. Male cones (microstrobili) hold
microsporangia, and female cones hold megasporangia. Male cones are temporary
structures that exist only long enough to make and release pollen, but female
cones can grow for years while the seeds they hold develop. <br />
Here is a picture of male pine cones. See how small they are? <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Ovules: As we already established, a megasporangium produces a megaspore, and
they are stuck on a spore-bearing leaf (a sporophyll) on the sporophyte. A
layer of sporophyte tissue surrounds and protects the megasporangium and
megaspore. This layer of tissue is called an <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">integument</span></strong>.
The integument, the megasporangium, and the megaspore together make up the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ovule</span></strong>. An ovule is where a
female gametophyte develops and produces eggs. The integument will later give
rise to the seed coat that protects the seed. <br />
<br />
Pollen grains: Once the microsporangium produces a microspore, that microspore
develops into a pollen grain that consists of a male gametophyte and a tough
pollen wall that protects the gametophyte while the pollen grain disperses.
When a pollen grain lands in an appropriate place (i.e. an ovule of the same
species), the pollen grain germinates and a pollen tube grows. Sperm travel
down this pollen tube into the ovule. <br />
<br />
If you get seasonal allergies, you can probably blame your runny nose and itchy
eyes on the wind-pollinated plants that release their pollen into the air and
straight into your nasal passages. Just tell those plants that they would be
better off finding animal pollinators and to leave you alone! Gymnosperms are
wind pollinated, and some angiosperms, such as grasses, have evolved wind
pollination even though their angiosperm ancestor was not wind-pollinated. <br />
<br />
Why on earth would they do this? Wouldn’t it be better to have a direct pollen
transfer from a specific animal rather than making lots of extra pollen and
hoping it lands on another plant of the same species? It turns out pollen is
cheap to make, energetically speaking, especially compared to sugary nectar and
showy flowers. So some plants have become successful by letting the wind do the
work. And if you think about where grasses live, in fields or open prairies, it
seems likely that the pollen will land on the right spot. <br />
OK so where is all this pollen going? And what exactly is pollen, anyway?
Remembering the Alternation of Generations section, we learned that there are
two parts of a plant’s life cycle, the gametophyte generation and the
sporophyte generation. These in turn, bear gametes and spores. Pollen contains
sperm, which is a gamete, and the sperm will fertilize an ovule, which is the
plant’s egg. Put the two gametes together and…voila! We get a zygote that
develops into a sporophyte. All the angiosperms and gymnosperms are sporophytes
when visible to the naked eye. We’ve accounted for the gametes and the
sporophytes, but where are the spores and the gametophytes? <br />
<br />
Gametophyte spores come in two types: microspores and megaspores. <br />
Microspores are the male spores, which develop into microgametophytes. In both
gymnosperms and angiosperms, the male gametophyte is contained in the pollen
grain. So pollen is really just an immature male gametophyte, which will mature
when the pollen lands on a stigma and starts growing a pollen tube.<br />
<br />
Megaspores are female spores. A megaspore divides and grows into a
megagameophyte, also known as the female gametophyte. This happens on the
sporophyll, which in a pine tree is just one scale of the pine cone. The
gametophytes are tiny. The female gametophyte produces eggs. </div>
<h2>
Angiosperm Reproduction</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Flowering plants, or angiosperms, are the dominant plants on
Earth today. They evolved 220 million years after the first seed plants
appeared, but quickly dominated plant life because of some major improvements:</div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Flowers,
which attract pollinators and improve the plant’s mating success</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Fruits,
which protect the seed and help with seed dispersal</li>
</ul>
<h3>
Flowers</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Flowering plants are masters of deception. You wouldn’t know
it, with their perky stalks and brightly colored flowers or their tasty fruits,
but there is a lot going on behind their innocent smiles—plants are
manipulating us. We aren’t the only ones they dupe, either. Lots of animals are
falling for their little tricks. Believe it or not, plants are tricking animals
into helping them mate and carrying their offspring around for them. And you
thought a rose<br />
<br />
Even though angiosperms would have us believe that flowers exist for the sole
purpose of sending them to loved ones on birthdays and Mother’s Day, we know
that plants have another motive: reproduction. <br />
<br />
Just like animals and the other plants in this section, angiosperms reproduce
with a sperm and an egg. But unfortunately for angiosperms, they don’t get to
enjoy romantic walks on the beach and candlelit dinners before the sperm and
egg meet. Most can’t just release their precious pollen to the wind and hope it
lands on another plant of the same species. Angiosperms are stuck relying on a
middleman for their reproductive success: a pollinator.<br />
<br />
The pollen carries the genetic material that gets transferred from one plant to
another, but pollen doesn’t have legs so it can’t walk around looking for
mates. Instead, the pollen is picked up, usually by a flying animal such as a
bee, bird or bat (the pollinator), and gets transferred from plant to plant as
the pollinator looks for <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">nectar</span></strong>, which
is a sugary liquid flowers secrete. In the process of drinking delicious sweet
nectar from flowers, the pollinator inadvertently carries pollen from one plant
to another. Once the pollen arrives it fertilizes the plant’s ovary and a seed
begins to develop.<br />
<br />
In the image below, a honeybee extracts nectar from a flower. Yummy!<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Plants that rely on animal pollinators are more successful than plants that use
wind or water to transfer genetic material: this is why so many angiosperms
have evolved and prospered. Even though angiosperms have fancy fruits and
flowers, they still have gametophytes, gametes, spores and sporophytes. The
angiosperm life cycle looks like this:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
If you can ignore the flower for the moment, you’ll notice that on the sides of
the diagram, a spore is just developing into a gametophyte, which makes
gametes. This is similar to what we’ve seen before. On the right side is the
microspore, which is the male side of things, and on the left side is the
megaspore, holding down the female camp. When egg and sperm meet at the bottom,
the ovule is fertilized and a seed and fruit form. <br />
<br />
Now for the flower. Let’s look at the structure of a flower to figure out where
the pollen starts and where it ends up. Don’t be scared of all the terms! They
can’t hurt you! <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The four main parts of a flower are the:</div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">sepals</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">petals</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">carpels</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">stamens</li>
</ul>
<h3>
Sepals</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sepals help protect the flower bud before it opens, since
they are often thicker than petals and can enclose the bud completely. Sepals
are often, but not always, green. In orchids, the sepals look just like the
petals and can have complicated multi-color patterns. </div>
<h3>
Petals</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Petals are the eye-catching part of the flower, and come in
every color of the rainbow. Petals attract insects and other pollinators, and
sometimes have hidden messages on them. Seriously. When viewed under
ultraviolet light (which birds and bees can see usually, but humans can’t),
some petals show nectar guides that point pollinators to the nectar.<br />
<br />
Sometimes they look like landing strips for bees, and they often change color
after the flower has been pollinated. This way, bees don’t waste their time
looking for nectar in places where it has already been taken, and the flowers
that haven’t been pollinated yet have a better chance of flagging down their
pollinator. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
.</div>
<h3>
Carpels</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The carpels, which are collectively called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">pistil</span></strong>, are the female
reproductive parts. Carpels are made up of ovaries, which contain reproductive
cells called ovules. The ovules will develop into seeds after fertilization. On
top of the ovary is a stem-like thing called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">style</span></strong>, and the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">stigma</span></strong>, which is sticky and
receives the pollen. One way to remember where the pollen lands is that the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sti</span></strong>gma is <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sti</span></strong>cky. </div>
<h3>
Stamens</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The stamens are the male reproductive parts and contain
pollen. The pollen is contained on the tip of the stamen, which is called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">anther</span></strong>; it sticks up like an
antler on a deer or moose. The <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">filament</span></strong> is
the stalk that holds the anther up. A pollen grain is actually more than meets
the eye. In the anther, microspores divide and develop into male gametophytes,
but the male gametophyte is only two cells. One of these two cells, the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">generative cell</span></strong>, produces two
sperm. The other cell, the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">tube cell</span></strong>,
produces the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">pollen tube</span></strong>
that sperm travel down to reach the female gametophyte. The generative cell and
the tube cell together make up a pollen grain. </div>
<h3>
Fertilization</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Plant reproduction is pretty complicated, with a lot of
steps, so it’s easy to understand why plants would enlist the help of other
unsuspecting organisms. After all, plants don’t have legs or wings or any means
of getting up and moving around. Makes it hard to go on a date, huh? <br />
<br />
Pollen is found on the anthers.<br />
<br />
Once the pollen grain lands on (or is brought to) a receptive stigma, a pollen
tube starts to form from the tube cell. A pollen tube is a pathway that forms
to transfer the sperm to the ovule; it is just one cell that grows longer and
longer. The generative cell produces two sperm, which travel down the pollen
tube. Fertilization isn’t complete until the two gametes (sperm and egg) fuse. <br />
<br />
Flowering plants do a few things that are really strange. The female
gametophyte only has seven cells in it, but the one in the middle has two
nuclei. When the pollen grain arrives, two sperm travel down the pollen tube
toward the egg. One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote, and the other
sperm fuses with the two nuclei in the central cell of the female gametophyte,
forming a triploid cell. This process is called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">double
fertilization</span></strong>. The triploid cell will develop into the
endosperm, which provides nourishment for the embryo. </div>
<h3>
Fruits</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Fruits, in addition to being tasty and full of vitamins, are
vital to plant reproduction. All flowering plants make fruits, though these
aren’t all fruits you would want to eat. A fruit, in the botanical sense of the
word, is an enlarged ovary. So yes, that orange or apple you just ate is an
ovary. However, in the case of the apple and many other tasty fruits, the
edible part is more than just the ovary; often we eat the receptacle too. </div>
<h3>
Seed development</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While ovaries are developing into fruits, the ovule is
developing into a seed. The zygote quickly becomes an embryo, and cotyledons
start to form. In monocots, only one cotyledon forms and in eudicots, two
cotyledons form. Cotyledons, sometimes called seed leaves, are important
storage organs, and in eudicots will accompany the seedling when it emerges
aboveground. <br />
<br />
What happened to that weird triploid cell that resulted from double
fertilization? It became endosperm. Endosperm is the plant’s way of storing
food in the seed that the embryo will use when it germinates. Endosperm begins
as a liquid; the triploid cell divides into more and more cells, but eventually
turns solid as those cells develop cell walls. And guess what? You’ve probably
eaten endosperm. Coconut milk is liquid endosperm, as is the juice that squirts
out when you bite into a fresh corncob. Both of these have solid counterparts:
coconut meat and the white part of popcorn. As the seed matures, cotyledons
absorb nutrients from the endosperm. <br />
<br />
In case the weather turns cold, a seed never leaves home without a coat. The <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">seed coat</span></strong> is a hard protective
layer that forms from the integuments of the ovule, and usually has to be
opened in some way before the seed can germinate. </div>
<h3>
Seed dispersal</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When you eat an orange, apple, watermelon, or cherries, what
do you do with the seeds? Spit them out? That’s exactly what the plant wants
you to do. They make a nice tasty fruit for us (or other animals) to eat, and
then they make a hard seed that of course we are going to spit out, dispersing
the plant’s seeds for them. The plant’s offspring are getting a free ride to a
new place, which is good for the plant. If the plant and all its offspring are
too close together, they could crowd each other out for sunlight, water and
nutrients. Plus, a whole bunch of the same plant crowded together make it
easier for pathogens to attack the whole lot; if the plants spread out a bit
they are less likely to come under attack. Synthesis: </div>
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Need water for fertilization?<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
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Dispersal Mechanism</div>
</td>
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<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Bryophytes</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Yes</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Spores</div>
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Ferns</div>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
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<span style="background: #F0F4F8;">Yes</span></div>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
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<span style="background: #F0F4F8;">Spores</span></div>
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Gymnosperms</div>
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No</div>
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Seeds</div>
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Angiosperms</div>
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<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #F0F4F8;">No</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: #F0F4F8;">Seeds</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-39922389952254384912017-02-04T07:45:00.001-08:002017-02-04T07:45:13.562-08:00Transportation in the Plant<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<h1>
<br /></h1>
<h2>
Transport of water in plants</h2>
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The driving force behind water movement in plants is
evaporation through the leaves, which acts like a magnet pulling water up the
plant’s plumbing system. However, because water is evaporating from a living
surface, it is called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">transpiration</span></strong>.
The problem is that plants want to hold onto their water and not let it all out
through transpiration. Therefore plants are constantly struggling to hang on to
their water.<br />
<br />
Before we get into the juicy details of water movement in plants, let’s back up
and review how molecules move in general. Molecules are in constant motion, and
through diffusion spread out evenly to take up whatever space is
available to them. Of course water molecules diffuse too, but in living things
water often diffuses across a membrane. This process is called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">osmosis</span></strong>. Water moves in and out
of cells through osmosis, and always moves from regions of high concentration
to regions of low concentration. Here’s the tricky part though: water
concentration is different than <em><b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">solute</span></b></em> concentration,
which refers to the stuff dissolved in the water, and keeping those two
concepts straight is necessary to figure out where water will go inside a
plant.<br />
<br />
Water is a polar molecule, and forms hydrogen bonds between the positively
charged hydrogen atoms and the negatively charged oxygen atoms. Hydrogen bonds
make water molecules stick together, a process known as <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">cohesion</span></strong>. When water molecules
form hydrogen bonds with other molecules, such as carbohydrates, it is called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">adhesion</span></strong>. The hydrogen bonds
have tension between them, so water molecules stick together and move together.
When water is pulled out through a leaf at the top of a plant via
transpiration, the rest of the water molecules in the xylem are under tension
and are pulled up the plant stem (or tree trunk), like water moving up a straw.
The fancy name for this is the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">cohesion-tension theory</span></strong>.
It describes the way water moves through the xylem using cohesion (the water
molecules stick to each other) and tension (because transpiration is drawing
water out of the leaves). <br />
<br />
To discuss the way water moves in plants, we need a new term: <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">water potential</span></strong>. Water
potential is the property of water that determines which way it will flow,
which depends on the concentration of solutes in the water and the pressure
being exerted on the water. Another way to think about this is the water’s
capacity to move or do work. Water potential is represented by the Greek letter
psi, which looks like this: Ψ. It is pronounced like "sigh" and it
looks like King Triton’s trident in The Little Mermaid. Perhaps King Triton was
secretly a plant biologist and was measuring the water potential of seagrass. <br />
<br />
We can actually measure the water potential of plants indirectly, by measuring
the tension of water in a stem. We call this the pressure potential. <br />
<br />
All water potentials are compared with the water potential of pure water, which
is zero. Two things affect water potential: solute concentration and pressure.
In symbols, that looks like this: <br />
<br />
Ψ = Ψ<sub>s</sub> + Ψ<sub>p</sub><br />
<br />
In words, the above equation means the two components of water potential are
the solute potential and the pressure potential. Solute potential reflects how
much stuff is in the water. Any water with stuff dissolved in it (a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">solution</span></strong>) has a negative solute
potential (Ψ<sub>s</sub>), since solutes bind with water molecules and lessen
their ability to move and do work. <br />
<br />
Pressure potential is the amount of force being exerted on a solution. In
living cells, this pressure comes from the contents of the cell pushing against
the cell wall. This is positive Ψ<sub>p</sub>. The cell wall pushes back,
causing <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">turgor pressure</span></strong>. Turgor
pressure causes plant parts to be firm and erect.<br />
<br />
When a plant cell loses turgor pressure, the solution the cell is in is hypertonic and the cell is <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">plasmolyzed</span></strong>,
which means water leaves the cell and the cell membrane shrinks. If water
enters the cell at the same rate it leaves the cell, the cell is flaccid (and
the solution is isotonic). When water enters the cell and pushes on the
cell wall, the cell is turgid (and the solution is hypotonic). See figure below. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Individual cells can gain or lose water, but what does this look like at the
whole plant level? When a plant loses water, turgor pressure decreases and the
plant wilts. If pressure potential is negative, water is under tension; this is
often the case for water in non-living cells like tracheids and vessel elements
in the xylem. <br />
<br />
Water travels along a gradient of high water potential to low water potential.
Assume the water potential of the atmosphere is -20 and the water potential of
a leaf is -2. If this is the case, where does water flow? Water will flow <em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">out</span></em> of the leaf and into the
atmosphere (thanks to evaporation). Remember that even though 20 is greater
than 2, -20 is less than -2. </div>
<h2>
Control of Stomata</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stomata are essential to plants, since they take up gas that
is used in photosynthesis. But since they are passageways into the plant’s
insides, plants have to be able to control the opening and closing of the
stomata. Plants only open their stomata when they need to, and politely close
them when they don’t. They weren’t raised in a barn. Plants can lose a lot of
water via evaporation through the stomata, and open stomata also provide
pathogens with a means for entering the plant. <br />
<br />
Two cells border each stoma (which is just a tiny hole in the leaf). These
cells are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">guard cells</span></strong>.
Guard cells use turgor pressure to regulate the opening of stomata. When the
plant wants to open its stomata, the guard cells take up ions (mostly K+ and
Cl-) and sugars through ion channels and pumps. Because the solute
concentration is now high inside the guard cells, water moves in and the cells
expand. This expansion causes the guard cells to expand and puff out, opening
the pore. To close a stoma, guard cells pump ions and sugars out of the cell,
and water leaves too, resulting in a limp guard cell and a closed stoma. <br />
<br />
Together, the guard cells look like a pair of lips. When the guard cells have
water and salts in them and the stoma is open, the guard cells are big and puffy
like Angelina Jolie’s lips. When they are closed, the guard cells are much more
similar to Jennifer Aniston’s lips. <br />
<br />
We know guard cells regulate stomata by moving things in and out of their
cells, but the exact conditions for when plants open and close their stomata
are not well understood. In most plants, stomata are open during the day; they
want to allow gas in and out while photosynthesis is going on. <br />
<br />
As with any trend there are renegades who want to go out and do things
differently. The plants that shake things up with regard to stomata and
photosynthesis are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">CAM</span></strong> plants,
because they have Crassulacean Acid Metabolism. This is just a different way of
doing photosynthesis. Most CAM plants are desert plants, and they open their
stomata at nighttime, which is when they fix carbon dioxide. Don’t worry too
much about these weirdos now—just know that they’re different and might be
worth learning about another time. </div>
<h2>
Water Movement Between Cells</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Now we know how water moves up a plant—but how does water
move between cells? Just as security officials monitor what goes through
airports, cells restrict what goes in and out of their cells. Each cell has
pores in its membrane, called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">plasmodesmata</span></strong>.
The path through the plasmodesmata is called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">symplast</span></strong>; if particles travel
through the symplast they have gained access to the cell’s insides and the
entire plant body. <br />
<br />
In contrast to the symplast, some particles aren’t allowed into the inner
membrane pathway and instead move through the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">apoplast</span></strong>,
which is a path through cell walls and intracellular spaces. These two pathways
regulate the substances that are allowed to travel through the plant. A layer
of tissue called the endodermis surrounds the vascular tissue and doesn’t let
things in. Because of the endodermis, only particles that move through the
symplast get to travel through the plant because they have access via the
plasmodesmata. <br />
<br />
The pathways through the plant look like this:<br />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</div>
<h2>
Transport of Sugars in the Plant</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The process of moving sugars through the phloem is called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">translocation</span></strong>. Phloem moves
sugars from the places they are made (the leaves) to various non-photosynthetic
parts of the plant. Since a leaf is the site of photosynthesis, it is called a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sugar source</span></strong>. Storage organs
such as roots can also be sugar sources if they are releasing sugars, such as
after the winter. Phloem makes its deliveries to <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sugar sinks</span></strong>, which are places
that don’t make sugar. Phloem moves in multiple directions; this is different
than the direction of xylem movement, which moves water up the plant body. <br />
<br />
The way sugar gets into the phloem and around the plant is similar to trucks
delivering products from a factory. Sieve tube elements are the trucks that
transport sugar, and they line up end to end like an everlasting traffic jam.
The trucks (sieve elements) load sugars at the sugar factory’s loading dock
(photosynthetic leaves) in a process called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">phloem
loading</span></strong>. During phloem loading, solutes are actively
transported into cells using a H+/ATP pump. <br />
<br />
After sugars have been loaded, water moves into these cells through osmosis.
The flow of water causes pressure to build up, forcing sieve elements to move.
When the sugars arrive at their destination (a place where sugar concentration
is low), the trucks unload their cargo. <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Phloem unloading</span></strong>
occurs when water flows out of the sieve elements and carries the sugar with
it. <br />
<br />
Since sugars are being concentrated and making water flow through osmosis,
there has to be fancy name for the movement of phloem. It is called the <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Pressure-flow Hypothesis</span></strong>. This
just means that at the sugar sources (the leaves), sugar is found in high
densities, which causes water to flow into cells through osmosis. Then the
phloem moves to sugar sinks through turgor pressure. And there it is: <em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">pressure</span></em> causes the phloem to <em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">flow</span></em>, and we have the pressure-flow
hypothesis.<br />
<br />
The water makes its way back into the xylem and can be used again in the plant.
The sugars are either used or stored for later; in the summer, sugars move from
leaves to storage organs such as roots; in the winter, sugars move in the
opposite direction as roots deplete their stored reserves to support new
growth.</div>
<h2>
Transportation of Nutrients</h2>
<span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A plant can’t live on water and sugar alone.
Plants also depend on nutrients that they can’t make themselves, so they have
to get them from the soil. The main nutrients a plant needs are nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium. These are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">macronutrients</span></strong>
because plants need large quantities of them to be healthy. A few other
macronutrients are calcium, magnesium and sulfur. <br />
<br />
Some nutrients are essential to plant life, but plants don’t need very much of
them. These are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">micronutrients</span></strong>,
because plants only need small quantities of them. Micronutrients include
boron, copper, iron, chloride, manganese, molybdenum and zinc. Consult your
chemistry textbook if you want to know more about these individual elements.<br />
<br />
Nutrients have to be transported through the vascular tissue too. Roots take in
nutrients from the soil and then inorganic molecules move up the plant through
the xylem. Phloem takes care of the organic molecules. Nutrients are delivered
to where they are needed in the plant, such as new leaves or branches</span>ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-41076314371026739572017-02-04T07:43:00.000-08:002017-02-04T07:43:01.577-08:00Plant Tissues<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<br />
<h1>
Plant Tissues</h1>
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No, we’re not talking about Kleenex or Puffs or other handy
products during cold season, but the tissues that make up plant bodies. A <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">tissue</span></strong> is a group of cells with
a common function, structure or both. <br />
<br />
Some of the key tissues in plants are:</div>
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In animals,
vascular tissue transports blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen,
removing waste, creating Olympic athletes, and so on. In plants the tissues
that transport things around the plant are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">xylem</span></strong> and <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">phloem</span></strong>. Want to hear a funny
plant joke? Of course you do. If a plant became a musician, he might play the
xyle-phloem. OK, maybe "funny" was a bit of an overstatement. <br />
<br />
Non-vascular plants such as mosses don’t have vascular tissue, but in all other
plants <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">xylem</span></strong> transports water around
the plant. Xylem cells are like zombies in that they are dead when functional.
They don’t, however, eat brains. At least, not that we know of. Dead cells,
which don’t have organelles filling them up, have a greater capacity for
transporting water.<br />
<br />
There are two types of cells that make up the xylem: <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">tracheids</span></strong> and <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">vessel elements</span></strong>. Both of these
cell types are dead when they are used in the xylem. Using dead cells, which
don’t have organelles filling them up, allows more capacity for transporting
water.<br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Tracheids</span></strong> are long, narrow
cells whose ends overlap. They have small holes between their ends, which allow
water to move vertically between the cells. They also have small holes called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">pits</span></strong> on their sides, which
allow water to move laterally. Tracheids look like flutes standing on one end. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Vessel elements </span></strong>are shorter,
wider cells. If a tracheid is a footlong hot dog, vessel elements would be more
like little breakfast sausages; shorter and wider. When they are stacked on top
of each other, the walls between them dissolve and water can move through them.
Only woody angiosperms (flowering plants) have both vessel elements and
tracheids; other vascular plants have only tracheids.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Phloem transports nutrients, most of which are products of photosynthesis. The
main type of phloem cell is called a sieve element. Sieve elements are
different than tracheids and vessel elements because they are alive when
functional. But how could they possibly have room to transport all those nutrients
if they are living cells filled with organelles? Unlike Dr. Who’s
TARDIS, these cells aren’t magically bigger on the inside. Sieve cells rely
on companion cells. <br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Sieve elements </span></strong>are just cells,
and if they are going to transport anything then they have to work together.
The ends of the sieve element cells have little holes in them; where two sieve
elements meet is called a sieve plate. Liquid can pass from one sieve element
to the next through the sieve plate. A sieve plate is very similar to the
colander you might use to drain the water from pasta after it is done
cooking—except that a colander is round and a sieve plate isn’t.<br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Xylem and phloem </span></strong>make up the
vascular tissue. The vascular tissue is arranged in bundles, and is easy to see
in a cross-section of a stem: <br />
<br />
Another important tissue is the<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> dermal tissue, </span></strong>which
is the outer protective layer. Plants don’t have skin exactly, but they do have
an epidermis. (Did anyone else just picture a plant covered in human skin? No?
Just us? Right then, moving on.) The epidermis is the outermost layer of
tissue, the tissue that has to meet the cruel world out there. The epidermis is
the tissue that encounters the rain, the heat, the pollution, and all the other
elements.<br />
<br />
In non-woody plants, the epidermis is the main security guard against the big
scary world, but leaves and stems also get protection from a waxy coating on
top of the epidermis called the cuticle. In woody plants, the epidermis gets
replaced by a protective tissue called the periderm as stems and roots get
older. <br />
<br />
Because the dermal tissue is the outermost layer of cells, it is the plant’s
first layer of defense and is important for protecting the plant. One way the
epidermis protects the plant is by growing little hairs, or trichomes. Before
you start imagining plants that look like they’re related to Cousin
Itt, keep in mind that these hairs are super-fine. Not superfreaky. You may
have never noticed the hairs before, but take a look at the next plant you
pass. The little stem that connects the leaf to the rest of the stem or branch
often has tiny hairs on it. <br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Trichomes</span></strong> have a few important
functions, but one thing they do especially well is prevent insects from eating
plants. Just as some people prefer nectarines to peaches (no fuzz), most
insects would prefer trichome-less plants. No one wants a mouthful of hair when
they’re eating. Trichomes can also help reflect sunlight, acting as a natural
sunscreen for the plant. As it does with people, too much sun can harm plants
because it damages cells and increases water loss.<br />
<br />
Roots have epidermal hairs too. Underground, the hairs do not provide as much
protection from insects as they would aboveground. Instead, the root hairs
increase the surface area of the root and help take up more water. Plants are in
a constant struggle to keep themselves hydrated, like a marathoner racing on a
hot day. Bring on the Gatorade.<br />
<br />
Tissues that make up part of the plant but are not vascular tissue or epidermis
are called ground tissue. Ground tissue can be found inside and outside the
ring of vascular tissue in the plant stem. Tissue that is on the inside of the
vascular tissue ring is called pith, and tissue on the outside of the vascular
tissue is called cortex.<br />
<br />
Ground tissue is made up of three main cell types:</div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Parenchyma cells </span></strong>are the most
common cells you encounter inside a plant. They have thin walls, are alive when
functional, and are all around pretty awesome. (But beware! You might run into
this term again, used differently, in animal biology. Don’t say we didn’t warn
you.)<br />
<br />
These cells are involved in some A-list activities in the plant, including
being the site of all that photosynthesis plants are doing. But wait, you say,
you’ve already read the section on photosynthesis,
and you know that it happens in chloroplasts? That’s correct, but chloroplasts
are organelles, and have to live inside cells. Those cells are <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">parenchyma. </span></strong><br />
<br />
Though photosynthesis usually happens in the leaf, parenchyma cells can be
found all over the plant body. They often function as storage cells, serving as
both attic and garage for extra starch. Parenchyma stores starch in roots,
stems and even fruit. <br />
<br />
One other cool thing about parenchyma cells is their ability to divide and
differentiate into different cell types, given the right conditions. Because of
this property, parenchyma cells get involved in wound repair. We wonder when
they had time for a first-aid class, with all the other things they’re doing.<br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Collenchyma cells </span></strong>have thicker
walls than parenchyma and are often involved in support. Since plants don’t
have bones, they have to figure out some other way of standing up straight. <br />
<br />
Collenchyma cells like hanging out with each other so much that they often form
strands, like the strings on a stalk of celery. Although they’re strong,
collenchyma cells are flexible too. Some cells have <em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">lignin</span></em>
in them, which is a polymer that makes the cells sturdier. Collenchyma cells do
not have lignin in their cell walls, so they can be nice and bendy. <br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A sclerenchyma cell, </span></strong>in
addition to having a long name, has a tough job to do. It has to give its life
to a greater cause: the support and protection of the plant body. Sclerenchyma
cells get their name from "scleros," which is Greek for hard. These
cells are hard because they have lignin in their walls (unlike Mr. Collenchyma
up there) and are usually dead when functional. <br />
<br />
Sclerenchyma cells come in two types: </div>
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Fibers are
important for structure and support, acting like a skeleton for a plant body.
These cells are usually grouped in threads and are long cells. Some fibers
don’t have lignin in their cell walls, which makes them soft and commercially
attractive. Hemp and flax fibers are both used commercially. <br />
<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Sclerids </span></strong>are usually used for
protective purposes in addition to being support cells. They have thick walls
and are perfect for making up seed coats and nutshells.</div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-74227090562902039432017-02-04T07:40:00.002-08:002017-02-04T07:40:31.838-08:00Alternation of Generations<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<h1>
Alternation of Generations</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Plants are really weird. Okay, maybe you knew that already.
But they do some really really weird things, as though they were aliens from
another planet. They don’t fly use spaceships and they don’t abduct people, but
the way they live their lives is very strange. What about their lives is so out
of this world? It’s called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">alternation of generations</span></strong>.
<br />
<br />
Let’s back up a minute. Remember the birds and the bees, and how you learned
that when two animals mate, they can make another animal? Sperm and eggs and
that whole thing? Well plants have sperm and eggs too, but they can also
reproduce by creating little mini versions of themselves called spores, which
are single, haploid cells that contain the genetic material and instructions
necessary to make another plant. Imagine if you could take one tiny cell from
your body and put it in the ground and another person appeared. Crazy. Or is
it? Plants do it without batting an eye, even potatoes, which actually have
eyes. It turns out plants reproduce both sexually (sperm and eggs) and
asexually (spores), and both types of reproduction are necessary to complete
the cycle. That is, a sexually reproducing plant will make a plant that
reproduces asexually, and then the asexually reproducing plant will make a
sexually reproducing plant, and the circle goes round and round. Each
reproductive event produces a new <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">generation</span></strong>,
and they alternate the types of reproduction, thus the name alternation of
generations. What’s a generation? You and your siblings are one generation, and
your parents are a different (and older) generation, and your grandparents are
another, even older, generation. <br />
<br />
There are special names for each of the plants we’ve been talking about. A <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sporophyte</span></strong> is a plant that
produces spores (asexual reproduction) and a <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">gametophyte</span></strong>
is a plant that produces gametes (sexual reproduction). The word gametes refers
to sperm and eggs. You need two gametes to make a new plant; otherwise you
might end up with a sperm plant or an egg plant. Wait, is that how we funny
purple vegetables? However, you only need one spore to grow into a new plant.
All plants have alternation of generations, whether they are flowering or
non-flowering, evergreen or deciduous, vascular or non-vascular. If you don’t
know what all those words mean yet, don’t worry, we’ll get to them.<br />
<br />
Let’s look at ferns as an example of alternation of generations. The fern
plants you see out in the woods, or in a garden, or by a river are sporophytes.
They produce spores. If you turn over a fern frond (that’s just a fancy word
for leaf), sometimes you’ll see little circles all over the underside of the
leaf. These are called <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">sori</span></strong> and they
are clusters of lots and lots of tiny spores. When the wind blows and releases
the spores into the air, they scatter and eventually fall to the ground.<br />
<br />
After a few days, a new plant starts growing. This plant is a gametophyte, so
it will produce gametes. The fern gametophyte doesn’t grow into a large plant.
It’s very tiny and will only last a few days. When the time is right, which is
usually after a rain when plenty of water is around, the gametophyte releases
its sperm and they swim to find eggs on other gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The beginnings of a new plant form when a sperm reaches an egg. The cells start
dividing and growing into a new plant, right on top of the gametophyte. Soon
the new plant, the sporophyte, gets bigger and bigger and the gametophyte
deteriorates. The gametophyte’s job is done now that it has released its
gametes, and the new sporophyte grows and grows, starting the cycle over again.
A general form of alternation of generations looks like this: <br />
<br />
A general form of alternation of generations looks like this: <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The forms that the sporophytes, spores, gametophytes and gametes take on vary
depending on the type of plant. In bryophytes (mosses and their ilk), the
gametophytes are the bigger generation but in other land plants, sporophytes
are bigger. <br />
<br />
Let’s look at these different types of plants in a little more detail. There
are four major types of plants. From earliest in the evolutionary order to
latest, they are:<br />
<br />
1. Bryophytes<br />
2. Ferns <br />
3. Gymnosperms<br />
4. Angiosperms<br />
<br />
Starting at the bottom of the totem pole, we have bryophytes, which include
mosses, liverworts and hornworts. These are non-vascular plants, which means
they don’t have a circulatory system. Bryophytes are usually only a few
centimeters tall, which is why you probably haven’t gotten to know them very
well. But just go check out a few cracks in the sidewalk, and a bryophyte will
be happy to make your acquaintance. In bryophytes, gametophytes are the
dominant generation and sporophytes grow on top of the gametophytes. <br />
<br />
What do bryophytes look like? They’re actually pretty cool looking. Don’t
believe us? Check it out yourself, in this old botanical drawing, done in 1904
by Ernst Haeckel:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
All of the above plants are bryophytes, with both generations shown. The part
on the bottom of each plant is the gametophyte, and the sporophytes are the
spindly things growing on top of the gametophytes. Funky, right?<br />
<br />
Next up in the evolutionary lineup are ferns. Ferns are <strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">tracheophytes</span></strong>, which makes them
vascular plants and lets them grow taller than bryophytes because they can
circulate water to leaves far from the ground. Ferns do not have seeds: they
only have spores. In ferns, gametophytes are tiny and only live for a few days.
The sporophyte generation is the dominant generation. <br />
<br />
Fern gametophytes are very small and heart-shaped. Here is a picture of one
with the sporophyte generation just starting to grow on top:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Image from<br />
<br />
The fern sporophyte can get quite big:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Gymnosperms are seed plants but they are called "naked seeds" because
their seeds don’t have any protective structure surrounding them. Pine trees,
spruces, firs, and redwoods are examples of gymnosperms, and are all
sporophytes. Not all gymnosperms are what we call "evergreens."
Ginkgo trees are gymnosperms, and they lose their leaves during winter.
Gymnosperm gametophyes are even smaller than fern gametophytes. <br />
<br />
Here is a gymnosperm embryo, in this case an avocado seed, surrounded by
gametophyte tissue. Read more about this in the Reproduction section:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Compare the gametophyte to the Gingko biloba sporophyte:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Image from <br />
<br />
Angiosperms are flowering plants and their bright colors make them favorites in
gardens, in bouquets and for corsages. Angiosperms make flowers and fruits, so
you can thank them for most of the food we eat in addition to making the garden
look nice. <br />
<br />
Angiosperm sporophytes can be trees, shrubs, grasses, or forbs. One example of
an angiosperm sporophyte is this lily:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The angiosperm gametophyte is so small, you can’t see it without looking into a
microscope. And since we don’t have a microscope on hand at the moment, we’ll
just skip looking at it. But don’t worry, it’s only a few cells. You’re not
missing much</div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-30958034513076510702017-02-04T07:38:00.002-08:002017-02-04T07:38:53.246-08:00o level notes for agriculture<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<h2>
Green manuring</h2>
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Green manuring is the plowing under or soil incorporation of
any green manure crops while they are green or soon after they flower. Green
manures are forage or leguminous crops that are grown for their leafy materials
needed for soil conservation. </div>
<h4>
Advantages of green manuring</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
the soil fertility</li>
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nutrients and organic matters</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
the soil structure</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
soil aeration</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Helps
control insect/mite pests, nematodes, and diseases</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Helps
control weeds</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Promotes
habitat for natural enemies</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Increases soil's
biodiversity by stimulating the growth of beneficial microbes and other
soil organisms </li>
</ol>
<h4>
Green manure crops</h4>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Green manure crops</b> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Seeding rate <br />
(kg/ha)</b> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Green biomass<br />
(t/ha)</b> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Dry biomass <br />
(t/ha)</b> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Nitrogen content <br />
(%)</b> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Nitrogen<br />
(kg/ha)</b> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>When to <br />
incorporate <br />
in the soil? (DAP)</b> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Azolla</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
50-90</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
8-10</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
1.8-3</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
52<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
35</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cowpea</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
40</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
9-10</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
3-4</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
1.4-1.5</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
140-150</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
40-60</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Lablab </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
7-18</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
5-7<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
220</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
45-60</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mustard</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
5-12</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
3.5<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
21-37 <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Pigeon pea</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
45-67</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
9-10</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
5-7</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
45-60<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sesbania </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
20-90</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
1.5-4<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
4.3</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
250-360</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
45-50</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Soybean</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
30-56</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
5-7.4<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><br /></td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
310<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
45-60</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sun hemp</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
35-40</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
5-19</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
5.5-6</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
1.7</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
108</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
50-60</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sweet clover </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
30-40</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
12</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
6</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
2</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
40-50</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<h4>
Criteria for the selection of green manure crops</h4>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Fast
growing</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Produce
abundant and succulent tops</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Well
adapted to the local condition</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Can fix
nitrogen in the soil</li>
</ol>
<h4>
Reminders</h4>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Broadcast
or sow the seeds after harvest</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Cut the
greens after flowering and plow them under</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Sow or
transplant the next crops 1-2 weeks after the incorporation of the green
manure</li>
</ol>
<h2>
Intercropping</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Intercropping is the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously
on the same field. It also means the growing of two or more crops on the same
field with the planting of the second crop after the first one has completed
its development. The rationale behind intercropping is that the different crops
planted are unlikely to share the same insect pests and diseased-causing
pathogens and to conserve the soil. </div>
<h4>
Types of intercropping practices</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Mixed or multiple cropping is the cultivation of two or more crops
simultaneously on the same field without a row arrangement. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Relay cropping is the growing of two or more crops on the same field
with the planting of the second crop after the first one has completed its
development. <br />
n</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Row intercropping is the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously
on the same field with a row arrangement. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Strip cropping is the cultivation of different crops in alternate strips
of uniform width and on the same field. It has two types; contour strip
cropping and field strip cropping. Contour strip cropping follows a layout of a
definite rotational sequence and the tillage is held closely to the exact
contour of the field. Field strip cropping has strips with uniform width that
follows across the general slope of the land. </div>
<h4>
Advantages</h4>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
the insect/mite pest populations because of the diversity of the crops
grown. When other crops are present in the field, the insect/mite pests
are confused and they need more time to look for their favorite plants. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
the plant diseases. The distance between plants of the same species is
increased because other crops (belonging to a different family group) are
planted in between. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
hillside erosion and protects topsoil, especially the contour strip
cropping.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Attracts
more beneficial insects, especially when flowering crops are included the
the cropping system</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Minimizes
labor cost on the control of weeds. A mixture of various crops gives often
a better coverage of the soil leaving less space for the development of
weeds. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Utilizes
the farm area more efficiently.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Results in
potential increase for total production and farm profitability than when
the same crops are grown separately. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Provides 2
or more different food crops for the farm family in one cropping season.</li>
</ol>
<h2>
Trap cropping</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Trap cropping is the planting of a trap crop to protect the
main cash crop from a certain pest or several pests. The trap crop can be from
the same or different family group, than that of the main crop, as long as it
is more attractive to the pest. There are two types of planting the trap crops;
perimeter trap cropping and row intercropping. Perimeter trap cropping (border
trap cropping) is the planting of trap crop completely surrounding the main
cash crop. It prevents a pest attack that comes from all sides of the field. It
works best on pests that are found near the borderline of the farm. Row
intercropping is the planting of the trap crop in alternating rows within the
main crop. </div>
<h4>
Advantages of trap cropping</h4>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Lessens
the use of pesticide </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Lowers the
pesticide cost</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Preserves
the indigenous natural enemies</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
the crop's quality</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Helps
conserve the soil and the environment</li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br />
<br />
Table 1. Examples of trap cropping practices </div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Trap crop</b> </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Main crop </b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Method of planting </b></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Pest controlled </b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Alfalfa<br />
(Meyer, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strip intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Lygus bug </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Basil and marigold<br />
(MMSU, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Garlic </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Border crops </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thrips</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Castor plant<br />
(Hasse, 1986; 1987)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Border crop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Heliotis sp.</i> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chervil<br />
(Ellis; Bradley, 1996)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Vegetables<br />
Ornamentals </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Among plants </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Slugs </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chinese cabbage,<br />
mustard, and radish<br />
(Facknath, 1997; Muniappan; Lali, 1997) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Planted in every 15 rows of cabbage</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage webworm<br />
Flea hopper<br />
Mustard aphid </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beans and other legumes </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Leafhopper<br />
Leaf beetles <br />
Stalk borer<br />
Fall armyworm </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chick pea<br />
(Grundy; Short, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Block trap crop at <br />
20 plants/ sq m (Brown, 2002)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Heliotis sp.</i> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Collards<br />
(Boucher; Durgy, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Border crop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Diamondback moth </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn<br />
(Hasse, 1986; 1987)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop, planted in <br />
every 20 rows of cotton<br />
or every 10-15 m </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Heliotis sp.</i> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cowpea <br />
(CIKS, 2000)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop in every<br />
5 rows of cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Heliotis sp.</i> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Desmodium<br />
(ICIPE, 2003)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn<br />
Cowpea<br />
Millet<br />
Sorghum </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stemborer<br />
Striga </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dill and lovage<br />
(Ellis; Bradley, 1996)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tomato </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tomato hornworm </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 13;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Green beans<br />
(Ellis; Bradley, 1996)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Soybean </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mexican bean beetle </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 14;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Horse radish<br />
(DA, Philippines, 1997)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Potato </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Colorado potato beetle </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 15;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Hot cherry pepper<br />
(Boucher; Durgy, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bell pepper </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Border crop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Pepper maggot</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 16;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Indian mustard<br />
(Cornell University, 1995) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strip intercrop in <br />
between cabbage plots </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage head caterpillar </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 17;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Marigold <br />
(French and African marigold)<br />
(Vann; Kirkpatrick; Cartwright, 2004)<br />
(Dofour; Guerena; Earles, 2003)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Solanaceous<br />
Crucifers<br />
Legumes <br />
Cucurbits </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row/strip intercrop</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Nematodes </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 18;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Medic, <i>Medicago litoralis</i><br />
(Miles, C.; et al., 1996) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Carrot </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strip intercrop in between<br />
carrot plots </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Carrot root fly </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 19;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Napier grass<br />
(ICIPE, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Intercrop<br />
Border crop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stemborer </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 20;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Nasturtium<br />
(Ellis; Bradley, 1996)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Aphids<br />
Flea beetle<br />
Cucumber beetle<br />
Squash vine borer </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 21;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Okra<br />
(Hasse, 1986; 1987) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Border crop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Flower cotton weevil </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 22;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Onion and garlic</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Carrot </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Border crops or barrier <br />
crops in between plots </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Carrot root fly<br />
Thrips</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 23;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Radish<br />
(Ellis; Bradley, 1996)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage family </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Flea beetle<br />
Root maggot</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 24;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Rye<br />
(OIKOS, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Soybean </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn seedling maggot</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 25;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sesbania<br />
(Naito, 2001) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Soybean </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop at a distance<br />
of 15 m apart </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stink bug </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 26;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sickle pod<br />
(OIKOS, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Soybean </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Strip intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Velvet bean caterpillar <br />
Green stink bug</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 27;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Soybean </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Heliotis sp. </i> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 28;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sudan grass<br />
(ICIPE, 2003) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Intercrop<br />
Border crop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stemborer </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 29;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sunflower<br />
(CIKS, 2000)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop in every <br />
5 rows of cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Heliotis sp. </i> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 30;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tansy<br />
(DA, Philippines, 1997)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Potato</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Intercrop </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Colorado potato beetle </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 31;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tobacco<br />
(Hasse, 1986; 1987) </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Row intercrop, planted in<br />
every 20 rows of cotton </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>Heliotis sp. </i> </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 32;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tomato <br />
(Makumbi, 1996)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cabbage </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Intercrop (Tomato is planted <br />
2 weeks ahead at the plots' borders)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Diamondback moth </div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 33; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Vertiver grass<br />
(van de Berg, Undated)</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn </div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Perimeter crop</div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;">
<div class="MsoNormal">
Corn stalk borer </div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<h4>
Tips for successful trap cropping</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Make a farm plan. This will guide you on where the trap crops are to be
sown or planted. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Learn to know and identify the pests. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Select a trap crop that is more attractive to the pest than the main
crop. Ask for assistance from your local agriculturist. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Monitor your plants regularly. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Immediately control the pests that are found in the trap crop. Prune or
remove the trap crops once the pest population is high, otherwise they will
serve as the breeding ground and the pests will attack the rest of your farm. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Be ready to sacrifice your trap crop as an early crop and destroy them
once pest infestation is high. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Always keep farm records. </div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-991637283999258602017-02-04T07:37:00.003-08:002017-02-04T07:37:40.949-08:00Field sanitation<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
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<h2>
Field sanitation</h2>
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Field sanitation is an important and highly effective farm
practice to keep most pests under control. </div>
<h4>
What to do?</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Use
sterilized or diseased-free seeds for sowing.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Properly
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weeds, unless they are maintained and intended as habitat for natural enemies.
</li>
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pests while you move from one plant to another. </li>
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are showing heavy symptoms of disease infection. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Properly
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Plow-under
the crop residues and organic mulches. This improves the soil condition
and helps disrupt the pest's lifecycle. The pest is exposed to extreme
temperature, mechanical injury, and predators. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Maintain
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and other plant debris. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Clean your
farm tools. Wash plows, harrows, shovels, trowels, pruning gears, bolos
after use. Lightly oil pruning gears.</li>
</ol>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-1752757169348581342017-02-04T07:36:00.005-08:002017-02-04T07:36:46.955-08:00Crop rotation<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<h2>
Crop rotation</h2>
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Crop rotation is one of the oldest and most effective
cultural control strategies. It means the planned order of specific crops
planted on the same field. It also means that the succeeding crop belongs to a
different family than the previous one. The planned rotation may vary from 2 or
3 year or longer period. <br />
<br />
Some insect pests and disease-causing organisms are hosts' specific. For
example, rice stem borer feeds mostly on rice. If you don't rotate rice with
other crops belonging to a different family, the problem continues as food is
always available to the pest. However, if you plant legume as the next crop,
then corn, then beans, then bulbs, the insect pest will likely die due to
absence of food. </div>
<h4>
Advantages of crop rotation</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Prevents
soil depletion</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Maintains
soil fertility</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
soil erosion</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Controls
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most effective when the pests are present before the crop is planted have
no wide range of host crops; attack only annual/biennial crops; and do not
have the ability to fly from one field to another. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
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<h4>
Useful tips in planning crop rotation</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Know the
family where your crops belong to make sure that you plant on the next
cropping a crop that belongs to a different family than the previous one.</li>
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Table 1. Crop groups r </div>
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Allium</div>
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Chive, garlic, leek, onion, shallot</div>
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Cucurbit (Gourd family)</div>
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Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, chayote<br />
cucumber, ivy gourd, luffa gourd, melons<br />
pumpkins, snake gourd, squash, wax gourd</div>
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Crucifer (Brassica)</div>
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Bok choy (petchay), broccoli, Brussels sprouts, <br />
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turnip, watercress </div>
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Legume </div>
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Common beans, black bean, broad bean (Fava),<br />
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kidney bean, Lima bean, lintel, mungbean,<br />
peanut, pigeon pea, pinto bean, runner bean, <br />
snap pea, snow pea, soybean,<br />
string bean, white bean </div>
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Aster </div>
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Lettuce, artichoke </div>
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Solanaceous (Nightshade family)</div>
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Potato, tomato, pepper, eggplant</div>
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Grains and cereals </div>
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Corn, rice, sorghum, wheat, oat, barley, millet</div>
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Carrot family </div>
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Carrot, celery, dill, parsnip, parsley </div>
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Root crops </div>
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Cassava, sweet potato, taro, yam, water chestnut </div>
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Mallow family </div>
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Cotton, okra </div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Make a
list of the crops you want to grow by also taken into consideration the
market's demand of your produce. For example, plant leafy vegetable on the
first cropping season, next fruit vegetables, then root crops, then
legumes, then small grains. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Grow
legumes before grains or cereals.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Practice <a href="http://www.oisat.org/control_methods/cultural__practices/green_manuring.html">green
manuring.</a></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Always
keep farm records.</li>
</ol>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-77387389688319767592017-02-04T07:36:00.003-08:002017-02-04T07:36:36.121-08:00Composting<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<h2>
Composting</h2>
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Composting is the biological decomposition (rotting and
decaying) of plant residues, farm animal manures, and kitchen scraps under
controlled conditions. Once these materials are completely decayed, the end
product is called compost. Compost is a decayed organic matter that is earthy,
dark, and crumbly. </div>
<h3>
Pile or Heap Composting</h3>
<h4>
What to prepare</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">A
semi-shaded 3 ft x 3 ft area (90 cm x 90 cm)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Composting
materials <br />
a. Green materials that are rich in nitrogen (freshly cut grasses, twigs,
branches and barks that are cut into small pieces, kitchen scraps, farm
animal manures)<br />
b. Brown materials that are rich in carbon (dried leaves, straws,
cornstalks and other dried plant residues, and cut old newspapers <br />
c. Garden soil<br />
d. Water</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Garden
fork or shovel</li>
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<h4>
Step by step procedure</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Spread a
layer of several inches thick (about 6 inches; 15 cm) of the brown materials
on the surface soil. This is the first layer. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Add for
the next layer, the green materials, about 6 inches thick (15 cm).</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Top this
with a thin layer of garden soil.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Sprinkle
enough water to make the layers moist but not wet or soggy. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Repeat the
steps 1 - 4, until your pile reaches the height of 3 feet (90 cm).</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Turn the
pile after 2 weeks to heat it up. Use a garden fork or shovel to turn the
pile. To mix, move the decomposing materials at the middle towards the
outside and the outside materials towards the center of the pile. Then you
can mix it every 5-7 days, thereafter. If your compost has a strong odor,
turn it more often as your is pile is tightly packed and is poorly
aerated. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Ensure
that the pile is heating up. When you first turned the pile, you may see
steam rising from it. This signals decomposition. You can cover the pile
to keep the heat in. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Add
nothing to the pile once the composting process has begun.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">The
compost is finished when the pile is no longer heating up and the original
materials turn earthy and black. </li>
</ol>
<h3>
Pit composting</h3>
<h4>
What to prepare</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Compost
pit that is; 1-1.5 m length x 1-1.5 m width x 1 m deep</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Composting
materials<br />
a. Green materials that are rich in nitrogen (freshly cut grasses, twigs,
barks and branches cut into small pieces, kitchen scraps, farm animal
manures) <br />
b. Brown materials that are rich in carbon (dried leaves, straws,
cornstalks and other dried plant residues, and cut old newspapers <br />
c. Garden soil<br />
d. Wood ash<br />
e. Water</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Long,
sharp, pointed stick/s</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Farm
implements such as wheelbarrow, watering can, hoe, machete/bolo</li>
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<h4>
Step by step procedure</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Dig the
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Place dry
plant materials as the first layer. This should be about 20-25 cm thick.
Sprinkle enough water to make the composting materials moist but not wet. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">The next
layer will be composed of green materials, either fresh or wilted grasses
or weeds. Twigs and branches can also be added unless they are chopped
into smaller pieces. This layer should also be 20-25 cm thick. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Top this
with a mixture of animal manure, soil, and ash. This layer should be 10-15
cm thick.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Repeat the
steps 1-3 until the pile reaches a height of 1 m. You make the pile
thicker in the middle (than the sides) to create a dome-shaped pile. This
makes turning the pile easier. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Place the
stick/s vertically into the pile to allow the air to circulate into the
various layers.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Cover the
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Turn the
pile every two weeks. The compost is ready after 3-4 months.</li>
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<h4>
Tips for better composting</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Keep the
pile moist.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Keep the
pile well-aerated.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Maintain a
balance of the green and brown materials. Too much of one slows down
decomposition. The best ratio is 1 part green to 1 part brown material.
Shredding and chopping these materials into smaller pieces will help speed
the composting process and increase the pile's surface area. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Do not add
diseased plants, human wastes, cats and dogs feces as the harmful
pathogens found in these waste products may not be killed in the process
of decomposition.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Do not add
matured weeds as their seeds may not be killed in the process of
decomposition and may germinate once you use the compost in your field. </li>
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<h4>
Uses of compost</h4>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">An
excellent source of organic matter that has plenty of beneficial
organisms.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Adds soil
nutrients necessary for plant growth.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
plant growth.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Controls
plant disease pathogens.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Controls
soil borne pathogens.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
the soil condition and texture. It breaks up clay soil, helps sandy soil
retains moisture, and relieves compaction. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
soil drainage.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
soil erosion.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Helps
rehabilitate infertile soils.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Makes the
soil easy to cultivate</li>
</ol>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-5320220029246585102017-02-04T07:35:00.002-08:002017-02-04T07:35:28.681-08:00Soil tillage<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<h2>
Soil tillage</h2>
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Soil tillage is a method of soil preparation for seedbed
preparation, sowing or transplanting, and for crops' growth. </div>
<h3>
Types of soil tillage</h3>
<h4>
Conventional tillage</h4>
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The cultivation of the soil using plow, harrow and other
farm tools or mechanical implements to prepare the field for crop production. </div>
<h5>
Advantages</h5>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Destroys
pests' shelters and disrupts their lifecycles</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Exposes
pests to predators and unfavorable conditions</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Distributes
soil nutrients throughout the soil</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Aerates
the soil</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Controls
weeds</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Makes
other farm cultural practices easier to undertake</li>
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<h5>
Disadvantages</h5>
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n</div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Destroys
the soil cover and its structure</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Enhances
soil erosion</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">High
moisture loss</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Disrupts
the lifecycle of beneficial soil organisms</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Needs more
labor cost for the soil preparation</li>
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<h4>
Conservation tillage</h4>
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The planting or sowing in the previous crop's residues that
are purposely left on the soil surface. </div>
<h5>
Advantages</h5>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Conserves
water. The mulch reduces water to evaporate.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
erosion because the topsoil is protected.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Reduces
soil compaction.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Protects
impact from rain and wind.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Improves
the soil condition with the increased organic matter content.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Natural
enemies have places to stay.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Lessens
the overall production cost.</li>
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<h5>
Disadvantages</h5>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Needs a
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practices to be successful.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Most soil
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">Weeds
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residues.</li>
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patience and waits a longer time to have an excellent soil.</li>
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<h4>
Methods of conservation tillage</h4>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Zero tillage (no-till, minimum tillage, or direct seeding). A system
where the soil is not disturbed between harvesting one crop and planting the
next. It is a crop production where the soil is not traditionally tilled or
cultivated although sticks or other planting equipments are used to make the
openings for seeds. </div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Ridge tillage. A specific form of no-till wherein a new crop is planted
on pre-formed ridges or hills or bunds from those of the previous crop. After
harvest, the crop residues are left until the planting time. The seeds are sown
along the ridges. Sticks or other farms tools are used to make the openings for
seeds. </div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">·</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Mulch tillage (stubble mulch tillage). Any system that ensures a maximum
retention of crop residues (30% or more) on the soil surface. The soil is
prepared in such a way that plant residues or other mulching materials are
specifically left on or near the surface of the farm</div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-45648094884708970162017-02-04T07:34:00.000-08:002017-02-04T07:34:05.275-08:00Primary Growth of Shoots and Secondary Growth of Shoots<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Primary
Growth of Shoots</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Do plants grow from the top or the
bottom? If you carve your name in a tree trunk, will it be at the same place in
10 years or will it move up the trunk? To know the answers to these questions,
you need to understand <b>primary growth</b> and <b>secondary growth</b>. <br />
<br />
First, let’s look at primary growth. Primary growth extends the length of a
plant both aboveground and belowground. Since humans generally live
aboveground, we usually only see the aboveground parts of a plant: the shoot
system. The entire shoot system, no matter how large or small, owes its
beginnings to a small region of the plant called the <b>shoot apical
meristem. </b><br />
<br />
An apical meristem is a region of high cell division (lots and lots of mitosis)
that contributes to the extension of the plant. The shoot apical meristem is an
apical meristem that is in the shoot system, as opposed to the root apical
meristem that is, you guessed it, in the roots. It is only through the activity
of the shoot apical meristem that the plant grows taller. <br />
<br />
The shoot apical meristem is found at the tip of the plant stem, so growth
extends upward from the top of the stem, not the bottom. Those bottom leaves
aren’t going anywhere until they fall off the plant. That means if you carve
your name into the trunk of a tree, it will still be there many years later
(but don’t do that, it hurts the tree like a tattoo hurts human skin; watch <span style="color: blue;">this clip</span> from Fern Gully
if you don’t believe us). <br />
<br />
One more meristem is the <b>intercalary meristem</b>. This is a region of rapid
cell division at the base of nodes. This type of meristem is only found in
monocots, so don't go looking for it on eudicots. You’ll be looking a long
time. These are particularly important to monocots because they allow stems to
elongate quickly and also for leaves to regrow quickly if they have been
damaged. <br />
<br />
Just like a human body has all its different parts (arms, legs, torso, head), a
plant body has parts that are the same on every plant, though they may look
different in different species.<br />
<br />
The parts of a shoot system are the:</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Stem (nodes + internodes)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></li>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">nodes are where leaves attach to
the stem </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 1.0in;"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">internodes are the spaces on the
stem in between the leaves</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></li>
</ul>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Leaf (petiole + blade)</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Branches, which grow out of axillary buds</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reproductive parts (the flowers and fruit)</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A leaf is made up of a blade and a
petiole. The blade is the flat green part that you usually think of as the
leaf, and the petiole is just the little stem that attaches the blade to the
main stem. In between the <b>leaf primordia</b>, where new leaves form, and the
stem below, are the axillary buds. These will form branches, which will have
their own apical meristems on the ends. Axillary buds are often protected by <b>bud
scales</b>. A bud scale is a modified leaf that covers the delicate bud until
it starts to grow into a shoot.<br />
<br />
Most of the parts named above are visible as they originate on the shoot apical
meristem. The shoot apical meristem is comprised of leaf primordia, which turn
into leaves, and the <b>apical dome</b>, where the stem elongates. Under a
microscope, the tip of a plant shoot looks like this:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Sometimes stems are modified, and specialized stems may look and function
differently than "regular" stems. For example, a <b>rhizome</b> is a
stem that grows horizontally underground. Just because a plant part is growing
underground doesn’t mean it’s a root! A rhizome can have axillary buds that
shoots grow out of. Irises have rhizomes, as do ginger and potato plants. Many
people know that potatoes grow underground and are called tubers, but they
actually are not roots. Potatoes are enlarged ends of rhizomes, storing sugars
and acting as storage organs for the plant. A rhizome looks like this: <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In the picture above, see how the tubers are at the ends of the rhizomes, and
the true roots are below? </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Primary
Growth of Roots</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The root system also has an apical
meristem, known as the <b>root apical meristem</b>. This acts in much the same
way as the shoot apical meristem, causing extension growth. The main difference
is this growth goes down into the ground, and roots, not leaves and branches,
come from the root apical meristem. <br />
<br />
Roots have really important jobs, and they don’t get a lot of credit for their
hard work because they are underground all the time. Roots are responsible for:
</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Anchoring the plant into the ground</span></li>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Associating with soil microbes in symbiotic
relationships</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As roots grow, they travel downward
through the soil, dodging rocks and other obstacles that might be in their way.
Just as you should wear a helmet when riding a motorcycle or playing hockey,
roots have their own type of helmet: a <b>root cap</b>. The root cap protects
the root apical meristem as the root pushes its way through the soil. It also
secretes slimy ooze that lubricates the soil around the tip of the root, aiding
the root on its journey through the harsh soil. <br />
<br />
Roots can take on many different forms, and root form depends on whether the
plant is a <b>eudicot</b> or <b>monocot</b>. In eudicots, the first root to
form is the primary root. It grows straight down and is the dominant root, also
known as a <b>taproot</b>. The taproot can produce lateral roots that grow out
to the sides. Common eudicots include tomato plants, roses, maple trees, oak
trees, and raspberry bushes. <br />
<br />
In eudicots, branch roots soon join the taproot in its hunt for nutrients.
These branch roots form from an area called the <b>pericycle</b>. Branch roots
don’t grow as long as taproots, but they expand the plant’s ability to take up
water and nutrients from the ground. <br />
<br />
In monocots, the primary root usually dies soon after the plant germinates and
is replaced by roots that form on the stem, called <b>adventitious</b> roots.
Adventitious roots are lateral roots that anchor the plant. Monocots don’t have
taproots but instead have shallow, fibrous root systems that trap lots of soil.
Some examples of monocots are corn, orchids, lilies, and magnolias. <br />
<br />
When seeds first start to germinate, the most important thing for the young plant
is to get a good hold in the ground. The plant produces more roots than shoots
when it is young, but as it gets older the amount of root structure is roughly
the same as the amount of shoot structure. In fact, the underground root system
often mirrors the aboveground shoot system.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Secondary
Growth of Shoots</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now we know how a plant gets taller
and its roots get longer. But what about wider? Even a big tree with an
enormous trunk starts out as a puny seedling. Popeye eats a lot of spinach to
grow big and strong, but what do spinach plants eat? <br />
<br />
The width of a plant, or its girth, is called <b>secondary growth</b> and it
arises from the <b>lateral meristems</b> in stems and roots. As with apical
meristems, lateral meristems are regions of high cell division activity. However,
the cells they make grow outward rather than upward or downward. Eudicots use
lateral meristems to add to their width; monocots, however, do not experience
secondary growth. We’ll come back to them later. <br />
<br />
The lateral meristems that produce secondary growth are called cambiums, which
just means a tissue layer that adds to plant growth. The two important ones for
secondary growth are the <b>vascular cambium</b> and the <b>cork cambium</b>.
The vascular cambium produces more vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), which
provide support for the shoot system in addition to transporting water and
nutrients. Because the xylem and phloem that come from the vascular cambium
replace the original (primary) xylem and phloem, and add to the width of the
plant, they are called <b>secondary xylem</b> and <b>secondary phloem</b>. Here
is what that looks like:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The vascular cambium is only one cell thick and forms a ring around the stem of
a plant. On its interior, it adds secondary xylem and on its exterior, it adds
secondary phloem. In trees, the layers of secondary xylem form wood. The layers
of the secondary phloem form bark. Over time, the tree sheds older layers of
bark and replaces them with newer layers. If you look at a cross section of a
stem, the width of the wood gets bigger over time but the bark always remains a
narrow band.<br />
<br />
Over time, the older wood in the inner part of the trunk goes becomes
transformed. It doesn’t turn into an alien and fight Decepticons, but it does
increase its defenses. The inner wood goes goes through a genetic process that
makes it harder and more resistant to decay. The wood’s cells are dead, and it
is now called <b>heartwood</b>. Heartwood is sometimes, but not always, darker
than the surrounding wood. You can think of it as the "heart" of the
tree, keeping the tree strong and sturdy because it is in the middle of the
tree. However, it does not actually contribute to keeping the tree alive—trees
can live with their heartwood completely decayed!<br />
<br />
The wood that surrounds the heartwood is called <b>sapwood</b>. Sapwood is the
living wood where transport of water occurs. Sapwood, unlike heartwood, is
vital to the tree’s health because it is carrying the water and nutrients the
tree needs to survive. Sapwood is softer than heartwood, so if you have to
decide which to build your house out of, choose the heartwood.<br />
<br />
In this cross section of a stem, the stuff in the middle, labeled Pi, is called
the <b>pith</b>. The pith is made up of primary cells (originating from an
apical meristem). The area labeled with an X is the xylem, and the P is the
phloem. The area labeled BF is a region of bast fibers, which are strong
supporting fibers in the phloem. These are not present in all plants. The outer
dark region labeled C is the <b>cortex</b>, which surrounds the vascular
tissue. And last but not least is the <b>epidermis</b>, which is the outermost
layer of cells. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In temperate areas with a distinct summer and winter, the vascular cambium
takes a nice long rest during the winter, kicking its feet up and watching
marathons of Friday Night Lights for a few months. When it starts up its cell
division again in the spring, the new cells are much bigger than the last cells
made during the fall because water and nutrients are more available in spring.
The parts of the wood with wider cells made in the spring are called <b>springwood</b>.
Wood made later in the season is called <b>summerwood</b> and is often composed
of thinner cells. This cycle of growth in the spring and summer and Friday
Night Lights in the winter, repeats every year and forms annual tree rings. <br />
<br />
The cork cambium makes cork, which is a tough, insulating layer of cells. These
cells have wax in them, which helps them protect the stem from water loss. The
cork layer also protects the plant from insects and pathogens such as fungi and
bacteria, and can insulate the tree from fire. This cork is indeed the same
cork found in wine bottles, which usually comes from the cork oak tree (<i>Quercus
suber</i>). Harvesting cork from these trees maintains the ecosystem: in areas
of Europe where cork harvesting has been abandoned, the cork oak habitats have
become overgrown by flammable shrubs, causing an increase in wildfires. Cork is
also part of the bark, and it falls off over time. <br />
<br />
Monocots don’t have secondary growth. Usually monocots do not get very wide.
However, some monocots, such as palms, can get pretty thick in the middle. How?
When palms shed their leaves, they don’t lose the entire leaf. The base of the
leaf stays attached to the stem, and layers of old leaf bases accumulate over
time. This makes the palm stem wider even without having secondary growth.</span></div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-36469131025529797192017-02-03T06:46:00.000-08:002017-02-03T06:46:06.034-08:00The process of urine formation enables the kidney to purify blood of the toxic materials and The process of urine formation enables the kidney to purify blood of the toxic materials and<br />
balance the salt and water levels in it.<br />
It occurs in two stages.<br />
a. Ultra filtration.<br />
b. Selective Re-absorption.<br />
Ultra filtration.<br />
It takes place in the glomerulus and requires two conditions<br />
I. A very high pressure.<br />
II. A filtering barrier.<br />
The pressure is built up in two ways.<br />
1) The usual high pressure of the blood in the arteries due to the pumping action of the heart and<br />
the renal artery takes blood from the dorsal aorta at a point close to the heart which has blood<br />
at a very high pressure.<br />
2) Due to the fact that the afferent vessel that brings blood to the glomerulus is much wider than<br />
the efferent vessel that takes blood away from the glomerulus<br />
The capillary walls of the glomerulus are permeable and act as the filtering barrier.<br />
<br />
Because of the permeability of the capillary walls and very high pressure, smaller components of<br />
blood such as water, mineral salts, urea, glucose, vitamins, etc. are passed from blood into the the<br />
capsular space of the Bowman’s capsule. The liquid which collects in the Bowman’s capsule is<br />
known as glomerular filtrate. It is similar to tissue fluid in chemical composition. The process<br />
leading to the formation of the glomelular filtrate is known as pressure filtration or ultra<br />
filtration. The filtering barrier retains all blood components which are bigger than pores e.g the<br />
blood cells and the plasma protein like fibrinogen and globulin.<br />
Selective reabsorption: this ensures that useful materials are not lost from the body.<br />
As the glomerular filtrate passes from the Bowman’s capsule along each tubule, substances in it<br />
which are still useful to the body are selectively reabsorbed. All the glucose, much of the water<br />
and small amounts of mineral salts are reabsorbed by active transport, osmosis and diffusion. In<br />
the proximal convoluted tubule all the glucose and some amino acids are re-absorbed into blood<br />
by active transport and some water is re-absorbed by osmosis. Also mineral salts are re-absorbed<br />
from here. In the loop of henle, more re-absorption of water takes place, large percentage of salts<br />
are re-absorbed here. The remaining glomerular filtrate passes to the distal convoluted tubules<br />
where salts and water are further re-absorbed. It moves to the collecting duct where more water<br />
is re-absorbed regulating the concentration of blood. The end product is urine which is carried by<br />
the collecting ducts to ureter then to the bladder.<br />
All urea and small amounts of mineral salts remain in the tubules dissolved in water and are<br />
passed on to the bladder as urine.<br />
substance %age cone in the following fluids<br />
Plasma glomerular filtrate.<br />
urine Appr.increse in cone<br />
of urine / plasma<br />
Plasma protein 7.5 0 0 -<br />
Glucose 0.1 0.1 0 -<br />
Sodium ion 0.32 0.32 0.35 Χ 1<br />
Chloride ion 0.37 0.37 0.60 Χ 2<br />
Urea 0.03 0.03 2.0 Χ 60<br />
Water 91.9 91.9 95.0 Χ 1ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-58389954723349810762017-01-31T20:23:00.001-08:002017-01-31T20:23:36.214-08:00Adaptations to dry habitats<h2 align="left" style="font-family: sans-serif;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial; font-size: large;"> </span></h2>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 24px;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Plants in different habitats are adapted to cope with different problems of water availability.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 24px;">
<span style="color: #184400;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><u><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Mesophytes</span></u><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> plants adapted to a habitat with adequate water</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 24px;">
<span style="color: #184400;"><u><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Xerophytes</span></u><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"> plants adapted to a dry habitat<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 24px;">
<span style="color: #184400;"><u><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Halophytes</span></u><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"> plants adapted to a salty habitat<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 24px;">
<span style="color: #184400;"><u><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Hydrophytes</span></u><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"> plants adapted to a freshwater habitat<o:p></o:p></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="color: #184400;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 24px;">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="color: #184400;">Some adaptations of xerophytes are:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" style="font-family: sans-serif;">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: solid solid none; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-width: 0.5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<b><span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Adaptation<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: solid solid none none; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-width: 0.5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<b><span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">How it works<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: solid solid none none; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-width: 0.5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<b><span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Example<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 23.15pt;"><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: solid none dotted solid; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-width: 0.5pt; height: 23.15pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">thick cuticle<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-color: windowtext; border-style: solid solid dotted; border-width: 0.5pt; height: 23.15pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">stops uncontrolled evaporation through leaf cells<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: solid solid dotted none; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-width: 0.5pt; height: 23.15pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">most dicots<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">small leaf surface area<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">less area for evaporation<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">conifer needles, cactus spines<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">low stomata density<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">fewer gaps in leaves<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<br /></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">stomata on lower surface of leaf only<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">more humid air on lower surface, so less evaporation<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">most dicots<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">shedding leaves in dry/cold season<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">reduce water loss at certain times of year<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">deciduous plants<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">sunken stomata<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">maintains humid air around stomata<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">marram grass, pine<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">stomatal hairs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">maintains humid air around stomata<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">marram grass, couch grass<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">folded leaves<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">maintains humid air around stomata<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">marram grass,<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none dotted solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><h2 align="left" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">succulent leaves and stem<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">stores water<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid dotted none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">cacti<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none none solid solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 144.9pt;" valign="top" width="193"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;">extensive roots<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">maximise water uptake<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-width: 0.5pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-width: 0.5pt; border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 158.85pt;" valign="top" width="212"><div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 4pt;">
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">cacti<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: #184400; font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br /></span></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-60788857346596226132017-01-31T05:59:00.001-08:002017-01-31T05:59:17.147-08:00 Describe the process of digestion of food from the mouth to the stomach The mouth Define the following terms<br />
Ingestion: taking food into a living organism<br />
Digestion: Breaking down large insoluble food molecules into small soluble ones<br />
Absorption: The process by which food molecules enter the blood stream<br />
Assimilation: Making use of the absorbed food substances<br />
Egesting: Getting rid of undigested materials.<br />
<br />
Describe the process of digestion of food from the mouth to the stomach<br />
The mouth<br />
Food is ingested and chewed. The teeth help to tear and grind the food into small pieces. This increases the surface area for the action of enzymes. The food is mixed with saliva which has two functions.<br />
1. The saliva contains mucus which is a slimy substance which helps the food to be swallowed.<br />
2. It contains the enzyme amylase which begins the digestion of starch into the sugar maltose. As food does not remain in the mouth for very long, only a small amount of starch is digested here. The food is then turned to a bollus shape by the action of the mouth and then swallowed.<br />
Oesophagus<br />
This tube pushes the food to the stomach by way of rhythmic contractions. There are two sets of muscles in the oesophagus.<br />
1. Circular muscles - these make the oesophagus narrower.<br />
2. Longitudinal muscles - these make the oesophagus wider.<br />
This is the way food is move all way along the alimentary canal. It is called peristalsis. The moment the food is swallowed the epiglottis closes so food isnt swallowed in the trachea.<br />
Stomach<br />
When the food reaches the stomach gastric juice is released from the stomach lining. Gastric juice contains two substances.<br />
1. Pepsin - an enzyme which breaks proteins down into polypeptides.<br />
2. Hydrochloric acid - needed to activate pepsinogen to pepsin.also kills any ingested bacteria.<br />
<br />
<br />ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-33015538403464054582017-01-31T00:18:00.002-08:002017-01-31T00:18:10.851-08:00Nucleotide Metabolism<br />
Roles of nucleotides in the cell:<br />
1) Activated precursors of DNA and RNA<br />
2) Nucleotide derivatives are activated intermediates in many biosynthetic pathways<br />
e.g. UDP-glucose, CDP-diacylglycerol<br />
3) Universal currency of cell (i.e. ATP)<br />
4) Components of three major coenzymes: NAD<br />
+<br />
, FAD, and CoA<br />
5) Metabolic regulators (i.e. cyclic AMP)<br />
Nucleotide synthesis can either by de novo or by recycling preformed bases (salvage pathway).<br />
Nomenclature:<br />
Nucleotides are composed of three components:<br />
1) nitrogenous base - pyrimidine (cytosine, uracil, thymine) or purine (adenine or guanine)<br />
2) pentose sugar - ribose (RNA) or deoxyribose (DNA)<br />
3) phosphate group<br />
nucleoside - purine or pyrimidine base linked to pentose sugar<br />
nucleotide - phosphate ester of nucleoside<br />
SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES<br />
Purine ring is synthesized de novo from 5 different precursors: aspartate (N-1 atom), CO2<br />
(C-6 atom), glycine (C-4, C-5, N-7 atoms), tetrahydrofolate (C-2, C-8 atoms) and glutamine (<br />
N-3, N-9).<br />
Purine ring structure is synthesized from ribose 5-phosphate; PRPP then donates ribose 5-<br />
phosphate for purine synthesis.<br />
Purine ring is built onto the ribose 5-phosphate via a 10 -tep pathway: glutamine, glycine,<br />
tetrahydrofolate, and glutamine make contributions to form 5-membered ring; construction<br />
of 6-membered ring forms inosine 5’-monophosphate (IMP).<br />
IMP can be converted into AMP or GMP<br />
For AMP synthesis, aspartate amino group condenses with keto-group of IMP; GTPdependent<br />
reaction<br />
For GMP synthesis, C-2 is oxidized to form xanthosine monophosphate (XMP)<br />
Amide nitrogen of glutamine replaces oxygen of C-2 to form GMP<br />
ATP-dependent reaction<br />
Synthesis of purine bases using the salvage pathway:<br />
Free purine bases are formed by degradation of nucleic acids and nucleotides.<br />
Purine nucleotides can be synthesized from preformed bases by salvage reactions (simpler<br />
and less costly than de novo pathway).<br />
2<br />
Ribose phosphate portion of PRPP is transferred to purine to form the corresponding<br />
ribonucleotide:<br />
purine PPi<br />
PRPP purine nucleotide<br />
Two salvage enzymes recover purine bases:<br />
1) adenine phosphoribosyl transferase<br />
adenine + PRPP --------> adenylate + PPi<br />
2) hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRTase)<br />
hypoxanthine + PRPP --------> inosinate + PPi<br />
guanine + PRPP ---------> guanylate + PPi<br />
Regulation of purine nucleotide synthesis:<br />
Probably largely by feedback inhibition.<br />
Glutamine-PRPP amidotransferase (in main pathway) is allosterically inhbited by IMP, AMP, GMP.<br />
Those steps leading specifically to AMP or GMP synthesis work primarily by feedback inhibition<br />
XMP and GMP inhibit IMP dehydrogenase<br />
AMP inhibits adenylosuccinate synthetase<br />
SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES<br />
Pyrimidine ring is assembled first, then linked to ribose phosphate ---> pyrimidine<br />
nucleotide.<br />
Requires fewer ATPs than purine synthesis ( 2 vs. 4).<br />
Pyrimidine ring has three metabolic precursors: bicarbonate, amide group of glutamine,<br />
aspartate.<br />
PRPP is also required.<br />
There is a 6-step pathway for de novo synthesis of UMP:<br />
1) glutamine combines with bicarbonate ion + 2ATPs to yield carbamoyl phosphate +<br />
glutamate<br />
2) carbamoyl phosphate combines with aspartate via aspartate transcarbamolyase to form<br />
carbamoyl aspartate (product contains all the atoms necessary for pyrimidine ring).<br />
3) carbamoyl phosphate is cyclized enzymatically to form L- dihydroorotate.<br />
4) L-dihydroorotate is oxidized by dihydroorotate dehydrogenase to form orotate; eremoved<br />
from substrate are transferred to ubiquinone ---> O2 to ETS.<br />
5) Orotate replaces pyrophosphate group of PRPP to form orotidine 5’-monophosphate(OMP)<br />
3<br />
6) OMP is decarboxylated by OMP decarboxylase to form uridine 5’-monophosphate (UMP)<br />
Dihydroorotate is produced in the cytosol, then passes through the outer mitochondrial membrane.<br />
Enzyme dihydroorotate DH is on outer surface of inner mitochondrial membrane<br />
Orotate then moves back into cytosol<br />
Regulation of UMP synthesis:<br />
asparate carbamoylase (ATCase)- main regulatory enzyme<br />
Inhibited by UTP and CTP<br />
Activated by ATP<br />
Keeps purines and pyrimidines in equal amounts<br />
Synthesis of CTP<br />
Formation of CTP from UMP in three reactions (see pathway sheet).<br />
Regulation of pathway is via CTP synthetase<br />
- allosterically inhibited by CTP<br />
CONVERSION OF RIBONUCLEOTIDES TO DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES<br />
Deoxyribonucleotides are formed from ribonucleotides by ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase.<br />
Energy to fuel reduction comes from NADPH.<br />
There are really three proteins involved:<br />
1) thioredoxin reductase<br />
2) thioredoxin<br />
3) ribonucleotide reductase<br />
Once dADP, dGDP, and dCDP are formed, they are phosphorylated by nucleoside diphosphate<br />
kinases.<br />
Regulation of ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase is complex because there are 2 regulatory<br />
sites:<br />
1) Activity site - a.k.a. allosteric site - controls catalytic site<br />
2) Specificity site - also allosterically regulated- controls substrate specificity<br />
If ATP is bound in activity, enzyme is ACTIVE<br />
If dATP or ATP is bound, reductase is pyrimidine specific<br />
CDP --> dCDP<br />
UDP --> dUDP<br />
Binding of dTTP to specificity site causes enzyme to take GDP --> dGDP.<br />
Binding of dGTP to specificity site causes enzyme to take ADP --> dADP.<br />
4<br />
Synthesis of Deoxythymidylate (dTMP) by Methylation of dUMP<br />
dTMP is formed from dUMP, which is formed by any of the following:<br />
dUDP + ADP dUMP + ATP enzyme is nucleoside monophosphate kinase<br />
dUDP + ATP dUTP dUMP + PPi<br />
dCMP + H2O dUMP + NH4<br />
+<br />
dUMP is converted to dTMP by thymidylate synthase<br />
Methyl group donor is methylene tetrahydrofolate<br />
Many cancer drugs inhibit the activity of thymidylate synthase and dihydrofolate<br />
reductase --> decreased levels of dTMP synthesis --> decreased DNA synthesis<br />
SALVAGE OF PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES<br />
Purine Catabolism<br />
Many organisms convert purine nucleotides to uric acid (see pathway sheet)<br />
AMP ---> IMP ---> hypoxanthine ----><br />
GMP --> xanthine -----><br />
High serum levels of uric acid may lead to gout<br />
Inflammation of joints is due to precipitation of sodium urate crystals<br />
Kidneys may also be damaged by deposition of crystals<br />
Gout is thought to be an inherited metabolic disease<br />
Some patients with gout have a partial deficiency of HGPRTase<br />
- leads to reduced synthesis of GMP and IMP by salvage pathway<br />
- causes increase in PRPP levels --> increased purine biosynthesis by de novo pathway<br />
Gout can also be caused by increased levels of PRPP caused by a yperactive synthetase<br />
Gout can be treated with allopurinol, an analog of hypoxanthine --> ultimately acts as an<br />
inhibitor of xanthine oxidase; called suicide inhibition<br />
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome<br />
Total lack of HGPRTase.<br />
Results in compulsive self-destructive behavior.<br />
Self-mutilation, mental deficiency, spasticity.<br />
Elevated levels of PRPP ---> increased rate of purine biosynthesis by de novo pathway ---><br />
overproduction of uric acid.<br />
Possible that brain may rely heavily on salvage pathway for IMP and GMP synthesis.<br />
5<br />
Shows that abnormal behavior can be caused by absence of a single enzyme.<br />
Pyrimidine Catabolism<br />
Begins with the hydrolysis of nucleosides and Pi from nucleotides.<br />
Successive reactions produce ribose 1-phosphate or deoxyribose 1-phosphate.<br />
nucleotides<br />
nucleosides Pi<br />
ribose 1-phosphate<br />
OR + thymine OR uracil<br />
deoxyribose 1-phosphate<br />
Thymine is ultimately broken down to succinyl CoA.<br />
Uracil and cytosine are broken down into alanine, then acetyl CoA.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1893742134471157078.post-68336528433409892792017-01-31T00:16:00.001-08:002017-01-31T00:16:30.196-08:00Amino Acid Metabolism<br />
Will be interested in two things:<br />
1) origin of nitrogen atoms and their incorporation into amino group<br />
2) origin of carbon skeletons<br />
AMINO ACID SYNTHESIS<br />
Nitrogen fixation<br />
Gaseous nitrogen is chemically unreactive due to strong triple bond.<br />
To reduce nitrogen gas to ammonia takes a strong enzyme --> reaction is called nitrogen fixation.<br />
Only a few organisms are capable of fixing nitrogen and assembling amino acids from that.<br />
Higher organisms cannot form NH4<br />
+<br />
from atmospheric N2.<br />
Bacteria and blue-green algae (photosynthetic procaryotes) can because they possess nitrogenase.<br />
Enzyme has two subunits:<br />
1) strong reductase - has Fe-S cluster that supplies e- to second subunit<br />
2) two re-dox centers, one of which is a nitrogenase<br />
Composed of iron and molybdenum that reduces N2 to NH4<br />
+<br />
Reaction is ATP-dependent, but unstable in the presence of oxygen.<br />
Enzyme is present in Rhizobium, symbiotic bacterium in roots of legumes (i.e. soybeans)<br />
Nodules are pink inside due to presence of leghemoglobin (legume hemoglobin) that binds to oxygen<br />
to keep environment around enzyme low in oxygen (nitrogen fixation requires the absence of<br />
oxygen)<br />
Plants and microorganisms can obtain NH3 by reducing nitrate (NO3<br />
-) and nitrite (NO2<br />
-<br />
) --> used to<br />
make amino acids, nucleotides, phospholipids.<br />
Assimilation of Ammonia<br />
Assimilation into amino acids occurs through glutamate and glutamine.<br />
-amino group of most amino acids comes from -amino group of glutamate by transamination.<br />
Glutamine contributes its side-chain nitrogen in other biosynthetic reactions.<br />
Reaction:<br />
NADPH +H<br />
+<br />
NADP<br />
+<br />
NH4<br />
+<br />
+ -ketoglutarate glutamate + H2O<br />
glutamate dehydrogenase<br />
Another reaction that occurs in some animals is the incorporation of ammonia into glutamine via<br />
glutamine synthetase:<br />
glutamate + NH4<br />
+<br />
+ ATP glutamine + ADP + Pi + H<br />
+<br />
2<br />
When ammonium ion is limiting, most of glutamate is made by action of both enzymes to produce the<br />
following (sum of both reactions):<br />
NH4<br />
+<br />
+ -ketoglutarate + NADPH + ATP glutamate + NADP<br />
+<br />
+ ADP + Pi<br />
Transamination Reactions<br />
Having assimilated the ammonia, synthesis of nearly all amino acids is done via tranamination<br />
reactions.<br />
Glutamate is a key intermediate in amino acid metabolism<br />
Amino group is transferred to produce the corresponding -amino acid.<br />
transaminase<br />
<-------------><br />
-amino acid1 -keto acid2 -keto acid1 -amino acid2<br />
Origins of Carbon Skeletons of the Amino Acids<br />
Amino acids that must be supplied in diet are termed essential; others are nonessential.<br />
Although the biosynthesis of specific amino acids is diverse, they all share a common feature -<br />
carbon skeletons come from intermediates of glycolysis, PPP, or citric acid cycle.<br />
There are only six biosynthetic families:<br />
1) Derived from oxaloacetate --> Asp, Asn, Met, Thr, Ile, Lys<br />
2) Drived from pyruvate --> Ala, Val, Leu<br />
3) Derived from ribose 5-phosphate --> His<br />
4) Derived from PEP and erythrose 4-phosphate --> Phe, Tyr, Trp<br />
5) Derived from a-ketoglutarate --> Glu, Gln, Pro, Arg<br />
6) Derived from 3-phosphoglycerate --> Ser, Cys, Gly<br />
Porphyrin Synthesis<br />
First step in biosynthesis of porphyrins is condensation of glycine and succinyl CoA to form -<br />
aminolevulinate via -aminolevulinate synthase.<br />
Translation of mRNA of this enzyme is feedback-inhibited by heme<br />
Second step involves condensation of two molecules of -aminolevulinate to form porphobilinogen;<br />
catalyzed by -aminolevulinate dehydrase.<br />
Third step involves condensation of four porphobilinogens to form a linear tetrapyrrole via<br />
porphobilinogen deaminase.<br />
This is cyclized to form uroporphyrinogen III.<br />
3<br />
Subsequent reactions alter side chains and degree of saturation of porphyrin ring to form<br />
protoporphyrin IX.<br />
Association of iron atom creates heme; iron atom transported in blood by transferrin.<br />
Inherited or acquired disorders called porphyrias are result of deficiency in an enzyme in heme<br />
biosynthetic pathway.<br />
congenital erythropoietic porphyria - insufficient cosynthase (cyclizes tetrapyrrole)<br />
Lots of uroporphyrinogen I, a useless isomer are made<br />
RBCs prematurely destroyed<br />
Patient’s urine is red because of excretion of uroporphyrin I<br />
Heme Degradation:<br />
Old RBCs are removed from circulation and degraded by spleen.<br />
Apoprotein part of hemoglobin is hydrolyzed into amino acids.<br />
First step in degradation of heme group is cleavage of -methene bridge to form biliverdin, a linear<br />
tetrapyrrole; catalyzed by heme oxygenase; methene bridge released as CO.<br />
Second step involved reduction of central methene bridge to form bilirubin; catalyzed by biliverdin<br />
reductase.<br />
Bilirubin is complexed with serum albumin --> liver --> sugar residues added to propionate side<br />
chains.<br />
2 glucuronates attached to bilirubin are secreted in bile.<br />
Jaundice - yellow pigmentation in sclera of eye and in skin --> excessive bilirubin levels in blood<br />
Caused by excessive breakdown of RBCs, impaired liver function, mechanical obstruction of<br />
bile duct.<br />
Common in newborns as fetal hemoglobin is broken down and replaced by adult hemoglobin.<br />
AMINO ACID CATABOLISM<br />
Excess amino acids (those not used for protein synthesis or synthesis of other macromolecules)<br />
cannot be stored.<br />
Surplus amino acids are used as metabolic fuel.<br />
-amino group is removed; carbon skeleton is converted into major metabolic intermediate<br />
Amino group converted to urea; carbon skeletons converted into acetyl CoA, acetoacetyl CoA,<br />
pyruvate, or citric acid intermediate.<br />
Fatty acids, ketone bodies, and glucose can be formed from amino acids.<br />
Major site of amino acid degradation is the liver.<br />
First step is the transfer of -amino group to -ketoglutarate to form glutamate, which is<br />
oxidatively deaminated to yield NH4<br />
+<br />
(see pathway sheet).<br />
4<br />
Some of NH4<br />
+ is consumed in biosynthesis of nitrogen compounds; most terrestrial vertebrates<br />
convert NH4<br />
+ into urea, which is then excreted (considered ureotelic).<br />
Terrestrial reptiles and birds convert NH4<br />
+<br />
into uric acid for excretion (considered uricotelic).<br />
Aquatic animals excrete NH4+ (considered ammontelic).<br />
In terrestrial vertebrates NH4<br />
+ is converted to urea via urea cycle.<br />
One of nitrogen atoms in urea is transferred from aspartate; other is derived from NH4<br />
+<br />
; carbon<br />
atom comes from CO2.<br />
UREA CYCLE<br />
There are six steps of the urea cycle:<br />
1) Bicarbonate ion, NH4<br />
+<br />
and 2 ATP necessary to form carbamoyl phosphate via carbamoyl<br />
phosphate synthetase I (found in mitochondrial matrix).<br />
2) Carbamoyl phosphate and ornithine (carrier or carbon and nitrogen atoms; an amino acid,<br />
but not a building block of proteins) combine to form citrulline via ornithine<br />
transcarbamoylase<br />
3) Citruilline is transported out of mitochondrial matrix in exchange for ornithine<br />
4) Citruilline condenses with aspartate --> arginosuccinate via an ATP-dependent reaction via<br />
arginosuccinate synthetase<br />
5) Arginosuccinate cleaved to form fumarate and arginine via arginosuccinate lyase<br />
fumarate --> malate--> oxaloacetate --> gluconeogenesis<br />
oxaloacetate has four possible fates:<br />
1) transamination to aspartate<br />
2) conversion into glucose via gluconeogenesis<br />
3) condensation with acetyl CoA to form citrate<br />
4) conversion into pyruvate<br />
6) Two -NH2 groups and terminal carbon of arginine cleaved to form ornithine and urea via<br />
arginase<br />
Ornithine is transported into mitochondrion to repeat cycle<br />
Overall reaction:<br />
CO2 + NH4<br />
+ + 3 ATP + aspartate + 2 H2O ---> urea + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + AMP + PPi + fumarate<br />
Inherited defects in urea cycle:<br />
1) Blockage of carbamoyl phosphate synthesis leads to hyperammonemia (elevated levels of<br />
ammonia in blood)<br />
2) argininosuccinase deficiency<br />
Providing surplus of arginine in diet and restricting total protein intake<br />
Nitrogen is excreted in the form of argininosuccinate<br />
3) carbamoyl phosphate synthetase deficiency or ornithine transcarbamoylase deficiency<br />
5<br />
Excess nitrogen accumulates in glycine and glutamine; must then get rid of these<br />
amino acids<br />
Done by supplementation with benzoate and phenylacetate (both substitute for urea<br />
in the disposal of nitrogen)<br />
benzoate --> benzoyl CoA --> hippurate<br />
phenylacetate --> phenylacetyl CoA --> phenylacetylglutamine<br />
Fate of Carbon Skeleton of Amino Acids<br />
Used to form major metabolic intermediates that can be converted into glucose or oxidized by<br />
citric acid cycle.<br />
All 20 amino acids are funneled into seven molecules:<br />
1) pyruvate<br />
2) acetyl CoA<br />
3) acetoacetyl CoA<br />
4) -ketoglutarate<br />
5) succinyl CoA<br />
6) fumarate<br />
7) oxaloacetate<br />
Those that are degraded to acetyl CoA or acetoacetyl Coa are termed ketogenic because they give<br />
rise to ketone bodies.<br />
Those that are degraded to pyruvate or citric acid cycle intermediates are termed glucogenic.<br />
Leucine and lysine are only ketogenic --> cannot be converted to glucose<br />
Isoleucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine are both.<br />
All others are glucogenic only.<br />
C3 family (alanine, serine, cysteine) ---> pyruvate<br />
C4 family(aspartate and asparagine) ---> oxaloacetate<br />
C5 family (glutamine, proline, arginine, histidine) ---> glutamate ---> -ketoglutarate<br />
Methionine, isoleucine, valine, threonine --> succinyl CoA<br />
Leucine --> acetyl CoA and acetoacetate<br />
Phenylalanine and tyrosine --> acetoacetate and fumarate<br />
Tryptophan --> pyruvate<br />
Regulation of the Urea Cycle<br />
The main allosteric enzyme is glutamate dehydrogenase.<br />
It is inhibited by high GTP and ATP levels.<br />
It is stimulated by high GDP and ADP levels.ladzhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10070826871431365096noreply@blogger.com0